Encoding and Retrieval Processes in Long-Term Memory

1. Encoding and Retrieval Processesin Long-Term Memory Chapter 6

2. Memory Memory: Any evidence of the persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information. Any sign that something learned has been retained. Learning and memory may be viewed as a continuum. Flashbulb Memory: A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

3. Memory Memory allows us to retain a sense of self as existing in multiple points in time. In fact, it is only memory that allows us to use time. Time words such as �yesterday� or �tomorrow� require a sophisticated use of memory. Infantile Amnesia: An inability to recall anything from the first few years of life. Until infants develop a sense of self, they do not have a framework into which to place memories.

4. Memory Memory allows us to make decisions and understand consequences. If B followed A yesterday, then my best guess is that B will follow A tomorrow too. If the day followed night yesterday, it probably will tomorrow too. -We make many assessments of probability while interacting with the world and these probabilities are based on past experiences.-We make many assessments of probability while interacting with the world and these probabilities are based on past experiences.

5. Memory Memory as Information Processing Three stage processing model of memory Similar to a computer Write to file (encoding) Save to disk (storage) Read from disk (retrieval)

6. Memory as Information Processing Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system. Storage: The retention of encoded information over time. Retrieval: Process of getting information out of memory.

7. Memory Sensory Memory (Sensory Register): The immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. Iconic Memory Echoic Memory Working Memory: Focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information.

8. Memory Short-Term Memory: Activated memory that holds a few items briefly. Look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten. Long-Term Memory: The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

9. Long-Term MemoryFundamental Issues and Distinctions Long-Term memory (LTM) systems Episodic Memory: Memory for personally experienced events. Semantic Memory: Knowledge or information about the world; not tied to context. Procedural Memory: Ability to perform well-practiced actions and skills.

10. Information ProcessingEncoding Sensory Memory-Immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. I got this flowchart from the study guide.Sensory Memory-Immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. I got this flowchart from the study guide.

11. Information ProcessingEncoding Short-term memory-Activated memory that holds a few items briefly. e.g., The seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. Working Memory-Concept of memory similar to short-term memory, but focusing more on the processing of briefly stored information. Similar to the RAM of the computer. Short-term memory-Activated memory that holds a few items briefly. e.g., The seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. Working Memory-Concept of memory similar to short-term memory, but focusing more on the processing of briefly stored information. Similar to the RAM of the computer.

12. Information ProcessingEncoding Encoding can be either: -Automatic Processing -Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, frequency, and well-learned information, such as word meanings. -Effortful Processing -Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. Encoding can be either: -Automatic Processing -Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, frequency, and well-learned information, such as word meanings. -Effortful Processing -Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

13. Information ProcessingStorage

14. Information ProcessingRetrieval

15. Information ProcessingThree-stage Processing ModelSummary

16. Information ProcessingEncoding Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, frequency, and well-learned information, such as word meanings. Effortful Processing: Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. -When we see or hear words, we automatically encode their meaning. -When we see novel information, we need to use effortful processing or it will never get encoded.-When we see or hear words, we automatically encode their meaning. -When we see novel information, we need to use effortful processing or it will never get encoded.

17. Information ProcessingEncodingEffortful Processing Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV The more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2. Spacing Effect: Distributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed practice.

18. -Ebbinghaus� work on memory suggests that -We forget most of what we learn -Amount remembered is related to amount of time spent learning -Overlearned information will be remembered better and retained longer -Spacing practice will enhance long-term memory -Ebbinghaus� work on memory suggests that -We forget most of what we learn -Amount remembered is related to amount of time spent learning -Overlearned information will be remembered better and retained longer -Spacing practice will enhance long-term memory

19. Information ProcessingEncodingEffortful Processing Serial Position Effect: The outcome when people are asked to recall items presented earlier in a list in any order; the initial and final items of the list are best recalled. Primacy Effect: Accurate recall of initial items studied in a list of items in a memory experiment. Recency Effect: Accurate recall of the last items presented in a list in a memory experiment. Serial Position Curves Show that the primacy effect may be explained as long-term memory and the recency effect as short-term memory.

20. Information ProcessingEncodingEffortful Processing Serial position effect- -If asked to learn a list of words, then quizzed immediately, you will best remember the last items on the list. -� � � , then quizzed later, you will best remember the first items on the list.Serial position effect- -If asked to learn a list of words, then quizzed immediately, you will best remember the last items on the list. -� � � , then quizzed later, you will best remember the first items on the list.

21. Rehearsal Conscious repetition of information. To maintain it in consciousness. Without rehearsal, short-term memories disappear within about 20 s. To encode it for storage. -Rehearsal can be used to aid in effortful processing to remember novel information.-Rehearsal can be used to aid in effortful processing to remember novel information.

22. Information ProcessingEncodingEffortful Processing Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information with no embellishment. Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking information with previously stored information. Effective for incidental and intentional learning.

23. Information ProcessingEncodingEncoding Strategies Encoding Meaning Including meaning of words. Acoustic Encoding Encoding of sound Especially sound of words Visual Encoding Encoding of picture images -Three methods by which novel information is encoded into long-term memory. Most memories are encoded in various ways. -Tell story of how I used to memorize things by talking to myself.-Three methods by which novel information is encoded into long-term memory. Most memories are encoded in various ways. -Tell story of how I used to memorize things by talking to myself.

24. Information ProcessingEncodingEncoding Strategies Levels of processing Processing of words proceeds from a superficial sensory analysis to a meaningful semantic analysis Deeper processing = better retention Problems: �Deep� processing is vaguely/circularly defined Doesn�t say much about retrieval

25. Information ProcessingEncodingEncoding Strategies Transfer-Appropriate Processing Places emphasis on encoding-retrieval interaction. Most effective encoding technique depends on how retrieval is to be tested. Encoding processes should match processes to be engaged at retrieval.

26. Information ProcessingEncodingEncoding Strategies Encoding also aided by: Distinctiveness: Processes that distinguish information in LTM. Organization: Processes that add structure to incoming information. Material-Appropriate Processing: Best strategy is whichever provides a complement to the information offered by the material.

27. Information ProcessingEncodingEncoding Strategies Imagery Mental pictures A powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. Mnemonics Memory aids Especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. -Low imagery words such as adjectives are much harder to encode than high imagery words. -Mnemonics (Greek word for memory) include a variety of techniques for remembering. -When taking a World History course in College, I was asked to memorize Geography, all the countries in the world. I did it one continent at a time. Lets say I was doing North America, I would look at a map, then mentally walk through it. Canada, America, Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama. Then I would take the first letters, C A M G B E H N C P and make a sentence such as Can a mean guppy be even happy now pappy. Sounds dumb but it worked!-Low imagery words such as adjectives are much harder to encode than high imagery words. -Mnemonics (Greek word for memory) include a variety of techniques for remembering. -When taking a World History course in College, I was asked to memorize Geography, all the countries in the world. I did it one continent at a time. Lets say I was doing North America, I would look at a map, then mentally walk through it. Canada, America, Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama. Then I would take the first letters, C A M G B E H N C P and make a sentence such as Can a mean guppy be even happy now pappy. Sounds dumb but it worked!

28. Information ProcessingEncodingEncoding Strategies Mnemonic techniques Devices employed to improve memory Method of Loci: link to-be-remembered material to known locations. Retrieve with �mental walk� Effectiveness of visual processing Self-Reference: Relating information to self improves memory.

29. Information ProcessingEncodingEncoding Strategies Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units. Like horizontal organization-1776149218121941 Often occurs automatically Use of acronyms HOMES-Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior Roy G. Biv

30. Information ProcessingEncodingChunking Organized information is more easily recalled -If you glance at the 1st, 3rd, and 5th rows, you probably can not reproduce them very well. However, lines 2, 4, and 6 are just as �complex� yet we remember them easily. -Someone unfamiliar with written language would be absolutely amazed that you could look at line 6 for a minute, then perfectly reproduce the 150 line segments that are there. -We automatically chunk several line pieces into letters, and chunk several letters into words, and chunk words into sentences.-If you glance at the 1st, 3rd, and 5th rows, you probably can not reproduce them very well. However, lines 2, 4, and 6 are just as �complex� yet we remember them easily. -Someone unfamiliar with written language would be absolutely amazed that you could look at line 6 for a minute, then perfectly reproduce the 150 line segments that are there. -We automatically chunk several line pieces into letters, and chunk several letters into words, and chunk words into sentences.

31. Information ProcessingEncodingChunking Chunking for those who read Chinese -A native Mandarin speaker could look at these absolutely weird symbols for a few seconds and then reproduce them perfectly. -A chess master can glance at a chess board and reproduce it perfectly. -But only if the pieces reflect a meaningful game in progress.-A native Mandarin speaker could look at these absolutely weird symbols for a few seconds and then reproduce them perfectly. -A chess master can glance at a chess board and reproduce it perfectly. -But only if the pieces reflect a meaningful game in progress.

32. Information ProcessingEncodingEncoding Strategies Organization benefits memory

33. Information ProcessingStorageSensory Memory Sensory Memory: The immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. Iconic Memory: A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli. A photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second. Registration of exact representation of a scene Echoic Memory: Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

34. Information ProcessingStorageSensory Memory George Sperling�s research -Flash 3 rows of letters each for 1/20th/sec -Subjects could recall only � of letters -If he signaled a row to attend to (high, medium, low tone) after the letters were flashed -Subjects recall was perfect George Sperling�s research -Flash 3 rows of letters each for 1/20th/sec -Subjects could recall only � of letters -If he signaled a row to attend to (high, medium, low tone) after the letters were flashed -Subjects recall was perfect

35. Information ProcessingStorageSensory Memory Photographic Memory (Eidetic Imagery): The details in sensory memory persist for longer durations than normal. In only clear demonstration of true photographic memory, a person would look only with the left eye at a 10,000 dot pattern, then, with the right eye at a different 10,000 dot pattern. Only when these two dot patterns were merged would an image appear. Elizabeth could remember what she had seen with the left eye when viewing the dots with the right eye, thus allowing her to �see� the stereogram. -Elizabeth retained this ability for up to 24 hours of seperation.-Elizabeth retained this ability for up to 24 hours of seperation.

36. Information ProcessingStorageShort-term Memory If information in Sensory Register is actively attended then it may come here Limited in duration and capacity �Magical� number 7 +/- 2 Lasts 5-30 seconds Key to Short-term memory is active attention, rehearsal, practice, THOUGHT! -Also called WORKING MEMORY -Requires active & selective attention -Limited capacity -7 + or � 2 items/chunks of information -Is required in all effortful processing -Also called WORKING MEMORY -Requires active & selective attention -Limited capacity -7 + or � 2 items/chunks of information -Is required in all effortful processing

37. Information ProcessingStorageShort-term Memory -In an experiment, participants were presented with a three consonant block, such as CHJ, then were asked to count backwards from 100 by threes, thus preventing rehearsal. Short term memory decays very rapidly.-In an experiment, participants were presented with a three consonant block, such as CHJ, then were asked to count backwards from 100 by threes, thus preventing rehearsal. Short term memory decays very rapidly.

38. Information ProcessingStorageHow Does Storage Work? Karl Lashley (1950) Trained rats to solve maze, then cut out pieces of their cortex and retested their memory of maze. Partial memory retained Long-Term Potentiation Increase in synapse�s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. Strong emotions make for stronger memories Some stress hormones boost learning and retention. -Long-term memories are�. -Organized; categorized (not haphazard) -Stored based upon Meaning; Identity (what is it); function (what does it do); visual pattern (what does it look like); clangs (what does it sound like) -Most information stored in numerous ways -Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning, drugs which enhance LTP make for better learning. -Long-term memories are�. -Organized; categorized (not haphazard) -Stored based upon Meaning; Identity (what is it); function (what does it do); visual pattern (what does it look like); clangs (what does it sound like) -Most information stored in numerous ways -Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning, drugs which enhance LTP make for better learning.

39. Information ProcessingStorageHow Does Storage Work? Equipotentiality: All parts of the cortex make equal contributions to learning and memory. -Karl Lashley Observed the Results of Brain Lesions on Maze-Learning Performance. (a) Lashley trained rats to run a maze and then performed brain lesions on them. (b) As larger amounts of cortex were damaged, errors in running the maze increased.-Karl Lashley Observed the Results of Brain Lesions on Maze-Learning Performance. (a) Lashley trained rats to run a maze and then performed brain lesions on them. (b) As larger amounts of cortex were damaged, errors in running the maze increased.

40. Information ProcessingStorageLong-term Memory -Before LTP, just one receptor is reaching toward the sending neuron, after LTP there are two. -The neurons responsible, called Hebb neurons, can change and modify themselves in response to learning. -The brain retains at least some degree of plasticity forever.-Before LTP, just one receptor is reaching toward the sending neuron, after LTP there are two. -The neurons responsible, called Hebb neurons, can change and modify themselves in response to learning. -The brain retains at least some degree of plasticity forever.

41. Information ProcessingStorageLong-term Memory -Subsystems of long-term memory -We process and store our explicit and implicit memories separately. -Thus, one may lose explicit memory (becoming amnesic), yet display implicit memory for material one cannot consciously recall.-Subsystems of long-term memory -We process and store our explicit and implicit memories separately. -Thus, one may lose explicit memory (becoming amnesic), yet display implicit memory for material one cannot consciously recall.

42. Information ProcessingStorageLong-term Memory Amnesia: The loss of memory Implicit Memory (a.k.a. Nondeclarative memory) Retention without conscious recollection Skills and dispositions Explicit Memory (a.k.a. Declarative Memory or Semantic Memory) Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Hippocampus: Neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. -Explicit Memory (aka declarative memory) -Anything one can �know� or �declare� -New facts, events, experiences -Implicit Memory -Retention without conscious recollection -Memory of learned skills � walking, talking, writing, etc. -Seems to be cerebellum related -People with amnesia (inability to form new memories) are able to exhibit implicit, but not explicit learning. -Get better at reading in a mirror, but state that they have never done the task.-Explicit Memory (aka declarative memory) -Anything one can �know� or �declare� -New facts, events, experiences -Implicit Memory -Retention without conscious recollection -Memory of learned skills � walking, talking, writing, etc. -Seems to be cerebellum related -People with amnesia (inability to form new memories) are able to exhibit implicit, but not explicit learning. -Get better at reading in a mirror, but state that they have never done the task.

43. Information ProcessingStorageAmnesia Retrograde Amnesia: An inability remember events in the past beyond a certain significant point. Most often a psychological disorder Anterograde Amnesia: An inability to form new memories after a certain significant point. Most often a physical disorder

44. Information ProcessingStorageLong-term MemoryImplicit Memory -This patient has Anterograde amnesia.-This patient has Anterograde amnesia.

45. Information ProcessingStorageLong-term Memory Korsakoff�s Syndrome patients show anterograde and retrograde amnesia. Thiamine deficiencies result from chronic alcoholism. Untreated thiamine deficiencies damage dorsomedial thalamus and mamillary bodies. Monkeys with lesions in the dorsomedial thalamus or mamillary bodies have difficulties with memory tests.

46. Information ProcessingStorageLong-term Memory The Hippocampus -New explicit memories are initially encoded in the hippocampus. The hippocampus has two pieces. -Left hippocampus is verbal; right is visual and location -Hippocampus -Important in the consolidation & encoding of memory -Important for Explicit memory -Memory for events & episodes -Can take weeks for memories to be completely consolidated and stored-New explicit memories are initially encoded in the hippocampus. The hippocampus has two pieces. -Left hippocampus is verbal; right is visual and location -Hippocampus -Important in the consolidation & encoding of memory -Important for Explicit memory -Memory for events & episodes -Can take weeks for memories to be completely consolidated and stored

47. Information ProcessingStorageLong-term Memory Semantic memories are widely distributed in the cortex. One patient can describe inanimate objects but not living things. Encoding and retrieval may activate different areas. -Semantic Memories are Widely Distributed. Participants were scanned while silently naming animals or tools. Areas that became active in both conditions cancel each other out and are not highlighted. (a) Silently naming animals, but not tools, activated the left medial occipital lobe. (b) Naming tools, but not animals, activated the left premotor area and left temporal gyrus, areas associated with concepts and hand movements related to tools.-Semantic Memories are Widely Distributed. Participants were scanned while silently naming animals or tools. Areas that became active in both conditions cancel each other out and are not highlighted. (a) Silently naming animals, but not tools, activated the left medial occipital lobe. (b) Naming tools, but not animals, activated the left premotor area and left temporal gyrus, areas associated with concepts and hand movements related to tools.

48. Information ProcessingStorageLong-term Memory Lesions of the hippocampus impaired declarative memories (remember where you went last time). Lesions of the caudate nucleus impaired procedural memories (food is in the arms that have small lights). Patients with Huntington�s disease and Parkinson�s disease have procedural memory deficits, but not declarative memory deficits. -The Radial Arm Maze. The radial arm maze may be modified to investigate declarative and procedural memories. The rat�s task is to locate food as quickly as possible, which requires it to form representations of which arms have contained food and which arms have already been visited.-The Radial Arm Maze. The radial arm maze may be modified to investigate declarative and procedural memories. The rat�s task is to locate food as quickly as possible, which requires it to form representations of which arms have contained food and which arms have already been visited.

49. Information ProcessingStorageLong-term Memory Enactment Effect: Memory is better for actions than for corresponding verbal statements. Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform future actions. Involves �self-initiated retrieval�

50. Information ProcessingRetrievalMeasures of Memory Recall: Measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier. As on a fill-in-the-blank test Recognition: A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned. As on a multiple-choice test Relearning: A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when relearning material. Preferences -Recall -Remembering information with few cues -E.g.. Recite the Pledge of Allegiance -Information tends to be overlearned -Easy to test with essay, short answer, fill in the blank items -Recognition -More sensitive to learning -Provides informational cues to trigger remembering -Requires acknowledging the correct piece of information -E.g.. -Multiple choice, True/False, matching -Recall -Remembering information with few cues -E.g.. Recite the Pledge of Allegiance -Information tends to be overlearned -Easy to test with essay, short answer, fill in the blank items -Recognition -More sensitive to learning -Provides informational cues to trigger remembering -Requires acknowledging the correct piece of information -E.g.. -Multiple choice, True/False, matching

51. Information ProcessingRetrievalMeasures of MemorySavings

52. Long-Term MemoryRetrieval Processes A good deal of forgetting is due to retrieval failure. Accessibility vs. Availability Information is often present (available), but not retrievable (accessible) without the right cue.

53. Information ProcessingRetrievalRetrieval Cues Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall Guides to where to look for info Priming: The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. Context Effects: Memory works better in the context of original learning.

54. Information ProcessingRetrievalPriming -After seeing or hearing �rabbit�, we are later more likely to spell the spoken word hare/hair as �hare�. The spreading of associations unconsciously activates related associations. This phenomenon is called priming. -One day my daughter was sitting in the back seat of the car and she got all wet from a bottle of water she was drinking. When we got to our destination, my wife went to the back seat to change the shirt. She had a new shirt right next to her. She asked me �Where�s the top�. Having just seen the shirt, I heard top to mean shirt, so I told her, its right there next to you. She didn�t get it. She said no its not. When she said top, she meant the cover to the bottle, I thought of shirt. -After seeing or hearing �rabbit�, we are later more likely to spell the spoken word hare/hair as �hare�. The spreading of associations unconsciously activates related associations. This phenomenon is called priming. -One day my daughter was sitting in the back seat of the car and she got all wet from a bottle of water she was drinking. When we got to our destination, my wife went to the back seat to change the shirt. She had a new shirt right next to her. She asked me �Where�s the top�. Having just seen the shirt, I heard top to mean shirt, so I told her, its right there next to you. She didn�t get it. She said no its not. When she said top, she meant the cover to the bottle, I thought of shirt.

55. Long-Term MemoryRetrieval Processes Encoding Specificity Principle Memory benefits to the extent that retrieval features (i.e., cues) overlaps with features present during encoding. Encoding features are the best retrieval cues.

56. -Words heard underwater are best recalled underwater; words heard on land are best recalled on land.-Words heard underwater are best recalled underwater; words heard on land are best recalled on land.

57. Information ProcessingRetrievalRetrieval Cues Deja Vu: (French) already seen Eerie sense that "I've experienced this before" Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience. Reflection of implicit memory. Mood-Congruent Memory Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one�s current mood. Memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues. -A person might hide their car keys when drunk, then forget where they were the next day, then, when drunk again, might remember where they are hidden.-A person might hide their car keys when drunk, then forget where they were the next day, then, when drunk again, might remember where they are hidden.

58. Information ProcessingRetrieval Hemispheric Asymmetry Neuro-imaging studies indicate hemispheric specialization in memory functioning Left hemisphere particularly active during retrieval of semantic memory info and encoding processes Right hemisphere particularly active during recall of specific episodes