The Respiratory System

1. Anatomy & Physiology The Respiratory System

2. Organs of the Respiratory System • Nose • Pharynx • Larynx • Trachea • Bronchi • Lungs—alveoli

3. Functions of the Respiratory System • Creates gas exchanges within the blood in the alveoli (found in lungs) • Passageways leading to lungs function in: • Purifying air • Humidifies air • Removes majority of irritants (i.e. dust/bacteria)

4. The Nose • Only externally visible part of the respiratory system • Air enters the nose through the external nostrils (nares) • Interior of the nose is divided by a nasal septum • Olfactory receptors are found here

5. The Nose Cont’d • Sticky mucosa found in nose • Traps bacteria/foreign pathogens • Becomes destroyed by lysozymes • Moistens air

6. Paranasal Sinuses • Sinuses are located in the following bones • Frontal bone • Sphenoid bone • Ethmoid bone • Maxillary bone • Function of the sinuses • Lighten the skull • Act as resonance chambers for speech • Produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity

7. Pharynx • What is it? • A muscular passageway for food/air • Commonly known as “THROAT” • Consists of 3 parts: • Nasopharynx • Oropharnyx • Laryngopharynx • Food travels through oropharynx and larngopharynx then is dropped off at… • esophagus

8. Larynx (Voice Box) • Directs air and food to the proper locations (trachea and esophagus respectively) • Made of 8 hyaline cartilage rings and a flap (aka “epiglottis”) • Largest hyaline cartilage is thyroid cartilage • A.k.a. “Adam’s Apple” • Epiglottis prevents food from entering trachea (windpipe) • When food enters accidently cough reflex is initiated

9. Larynx (Voice Box) • Vocal folds found mucous membrane of larynx • Create vibrations that allow speech

10. Trachea (windpipe) • About 4 inches long • Stability provided by C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage • Lined with “ciliated mucosa” • Beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air • Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from lungs

11. Main (Primary) Bronchi • Formed by division of the trachea • Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than left • Common location for lodged objects • Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches within the lungs • Known as “Bronchioles”

12. Lungs • Occupy most of the thoracic cavity • Heart occupies central portion called mediastinum • Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion) • Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion) • Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures • Left lung—two lobes • Right lung—three lobes

13. Lungs Cont’d • Serosa covers the outer surface of the lungs • Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface • Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity • Pleural fluid fills the area between layers of pleura to allow gliding • These two pleural layers resist being pulled apart • Lungs held tight to thoracic wall

14. Respiratory Zone Structures Respiratory bronchioles Alveolar ducts Alveolar sacs Alveoli (air sacs) Site of gas exchange = alveoli only

15. Respiratory Membrane (Air-Blood Barrier) • Respiratory Membrane: Air flows on one side, blood flows on other side • Thin squamous epithelial layer lines alveolar walls • Allows air to enter by simple diffusion • Thinner than toilet paper • Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs • Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of alveoli*

16. Events of Respiration • Pulmonary ventilation—moving air in and out of the lungs (commonly called breathing) • External respiration—gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli • Oxygen is loaded into the blood • Carbon dioxide is unloaded from the blood • Exchanges are made between blood and body exterior • Respiratory gas transport • transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream to different areas in the body • Internal respiration • gas exchange between blood and tissue cells • Gas exchange occurs inside the body

17. Breathing Mechanics Inspiration=inhalation Expiration=exhalation Air leaving lungs Largely a passive process which depends on natural lung elasticity As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs due to Increase in gas pressure Forced expiration can occur mostly by contracting internal intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage Abdominal muscles contract and push organs upwards against diaphragm • Air entering lungs • Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract • The size of the thoracic cavity increases • External air is pulled into the lungs due to • Decrease in gas pressure in lungs

18. INSPIRATION

19. EXPIRATION

20. Nonrespiratory Air (Gas) Movements • Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary actions • Examples: • Cough and sneeze—clears lungs of debris • Crying—emotionally induced mechanism • Laughing—similar to crying • Hiccup—sudden inspirations • Yawn—very deep inspiration

21. Respiratory Volumes and Capacities • Normal breathing moves about 500 mL of air with each breath • This respiratory volume is tidal volume (TV) • Many factors that affect respiratory capacity • A person’s size • Sex • Age • Physical condition

22. Respiratory Volumes and Capacities • Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) • Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume • Usually between 2100 and 3200 mL • Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) • Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled • Approximately 1200 mL • Residual volume • Air remaining in lung after expiration • About 1200 ml • Cannot leave lungs; needs to keep alveoli open • Vital capacity • The total amount of exchangeable air • Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV

23. Respiratory Sounds • Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope • Two sounds can be heard w/ a stethoscope • Bronchial sounds—produced by air rushing through trachea and bronchi • Vesicular breathing sounds—soft sounds of air filling alveoli

24. External Respiration • Gas exchange between alveoli (in lungs) and blood • Occurs through simple diffusion • From higher concentration-lower concentration • Blood returning from tissues is CO2 rich • Blood in pulmonary capillaries release CO2 via exhalation • Blood leaving the alveoli in lungs is O2 rich, CO2 poor

25. External Respiration

26. Gas Transport in the Blood • 2 ways of oxygen transport • Oxygen is transported to RBCs by attaching to hemoglobin • Carried and dissolves in plasma • CO2 binds to hemoglobin at different site • Breaks down into bicarbonate ion • Bind to hydrogen and create carbonic acid • Molecule splits into CO2 and H2O • CO2 diffuses out of RBC and into alveoli for release

27. Gas Transport in the Blood

28. Internal Respiration • Exchange of gases between blood and body cells • An opposite reaction to what occurs in the lungs • Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to blood (called loading) • Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue (called unloading)

29. Neural Regulation of Respiration • Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to and from the brain by phrenicand intercostal nerves • Neural centers that control rate and depth are located in the medulla and pons • Medulla—sets basic rhythm of breathing and contains a pacemaker called the self-exciting inspiratory center • Pons—appears to smooth out respiratory rate

30. Neural Regulation of Respiration

31. Neural Regulation of Respiration • Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) • 12–15 respirations per minute • Hyperpnea • Increased respiratory rate often due to extra oxygen needs • Examples??

32. Non-Neural Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth • Physical factors • Increased body temperature • Exercise • Talking • Coughing • Volition (conscious control) • Temporary, body activates to initiate breathing again • Emotional factors

33. Non-Neural Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth • Chemical factors: CO2 levels • The body’s need to rid itself of CO2 is the most important stimulus • Increased levels of carbon dioxide (and thus, a decreased or acidic pH) in the blood increase the rate and depth of breathing • Chemical factors: oxygen levels • Changes in oxygen concentration in the blood are detected by chemoreceptors in the aorta and common carotid artery • Information is sent to the medulla

34. Hyperventilation and Hypoventilation Hyperventilation Hypoventilation Results when blood becomes alkaline (alkalosis) Extremely slow or shallow breathing Allows CO2 to accumulate in the blood • Results from increased CO2 in the blood (acidosis) • Breathing becomes deeper and more rapid • Blows off more CO2 to restore normal blood pH

35. Homeostatic Imbalances • Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD) • Chronic Bronchitis • Emphysema • Lung Cancer • Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) • Asthma

36. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD) • Major cause of death in the U.S. • Signs/Symptoms: • HX of smoking • Dyspnea • Coughing • Frequent pulmonary infections • Hypoxic and retain CO2 • Eventually leads to mortality

37. Chronic Bronchitis • Mucosa of respiratory passages becomes inflammed • Excess mucus is produced • Results in impaired breathing and gas exchange • Increases risk for pulmonary infection • “Blue Bloaters” • Cyanotic due to CO2 retention

38. Emphysema • Alveoli walls enlarge • Chronic inflammation of lungs leads to fibrosis (scar tissue) • Lungs become less elastic • Airways collapse making expiration difficult • Leads to barrel chest • Breathing and gas exchange becomes difficult • Leads to easy exhaustion

39. Lung Cancer • Accounts for one-third of all cancer deaths in the United States • Increased incidence is associated with smoking • 90% if lung cancer patients are smokers • Leads to a series of other sides effects detrimental to health • Affected lobes are typically removed

40. Lung Cancer

41. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) • Seemingly healthy infant stops breathing and dies during sleep • Some cases are thought to be a problem of the neural respiratory control center • One third of cases appear to be due to heart rhythm abnormalities • Recent research shows a genetic component

42. Asthma • Asthma • Chronic inflamed hypersensitive bronchiole passages • Response to irritants with dyspnea, coughing, and wheezing

43. Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory System • Aging effects • Elasticity of lungs decreases • Vital capacity decreases • Blood oxygen levels decrease • Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide decrease • Elderly are often hypoxic and exhibit sleep apnea • More risks of respiratory tract infection