Vietnam War

1. Vietnam War US History

2. Background • Historically, Vietnam was a French colony • French Indochina (1887-1954): included Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam (Tonkin, Annam, and Cochinchina) • During WWII, Japan invaded and captured Vietnam • Following Japan’s defeat in August 1945, they relinquished control of the area. • France sought to reclaim their lost colonial possession. This sparked the First Indochina War (1946-1954), a nearly 8-year conflict between the French and the Viet Minh, a nationalist and communist liberation force led by Ho Chi Minh.

3. First Indochina War • At first, the US maintained neutrality in the conflict because of opposition to imperialism. With the communist victory in China and establishment of the PRC (People’s Republic of China) in 1949, the US began to fear that communism would spread throughout the region, however, and aided the French. • The Soviet Union and China aided the Viet Minh. • Eventually, the Viet Minh emerged victorious. At the Geneva Conference in 1954, Vietnam was partitioned at the 17th parallel. North Vietnam would be a communist regime led by Ho Chi Minh. While South Vietnam would be a pro-western state governed by Ngo Dinh Diem. An election in 1956 was scheduled to reunite the country under one government • Neither the US nor Ngo Dinh Diem signed any agreement at the conference.

4. Failed Peace • The national elections never occurred, as the South Vietnamese believed it would be impossible to stage free and fair elections. They also feared they would lose. • The North Vietnamese government created a rebel group designed to foment unrest in the South called the Vietcong. • Diem lost US support during the Buddhist crisis in 1963. The US organized a coup against him, and he was later assassinated.

5. US Escalation • US escalation in Vietnam was heavily influenced by the domino theory. • Gulf of Tonkin incidents • On August 2, 1964 the USS Maddox, an American destroyer conducting an intelligence mission, was fired upon by North Vietnamese warships • A second attack was alleged to have occurred on August 4, although the general consensus is that this never took place. • The Johnson administration used the attacks as a pretext for further US involvement in Vietnam • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dx8-ffiYyzA • On August 7, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave LBJ authorization “to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression” • Congress never issued a formal declaration of war

6. Presidential Power to Make War • No American war has been formally declared since WWII • Should presidents have to seek congressional approval for a war declaration before conducting a conflict?If so, is it also necessary to seek congressional approval for a limited operation (air strike, etc.)? • In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution, overriding a veto by President Nixon. It forced the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of committing armed forces to a military action and forbids armed forced from staying longer than 60 days without a declaration of war. • US presidents have continually argued that the law unconstitutionally checks their power. The Supreme Court has never decided the issue.

7. US Escalation • In February 1965, following the passage of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, President Johnson authorized “Operation Rolling Thunder,” the first sustained bombing campaign in North Vietnam. • Initially, LBJ did not want to commit American ground forces. By March 1965, however, he had sent thousands of troops. • By the end of 1965, some 180,000 troops were in Vietnam

8. Warfare in Vietnam • Vietcong used guerilla tactics to fight the larger and better equipped American forces • Used extensive tunnel system to launch surprise attacks and evade bombs • To counter these tactics, America utilized napalm, a gasoline-based, flammable jelly and Agent Orange, an herbicide. These chemicals left affected areas in ruins; Agent Orange was implicated in cancers developed by civilians and veterans after the war.

11. Building the US Army • Most troops who served in Vietnam during the war were called as part of the draft. • All men at the age of 18 had to register with the Selective Service. • Men aged 18-26 would be called to serve in the event of war. • Draftees could avoid service for a myriad of reasons (i.e: medical issues or being a conscientious objector) • A popular way to avoid being drafted was enrolling at a university • Wealthier individuals were more likely to be able to afford college. Thus, people from lower-classes comprised the bulk of the army. • African-Americans also served (and died) in disproportionate numbers. • MLK noted the irony of blacks dying for a country in which they were treated as second-class citizens.

12. Building the US Army • In March 1968, the a group of American soldiers committed the My Lai Massacre, killing at least 354 unarmed men, women, and children. • Massacre received significant media attention in the fall of 1969 and led to increased opposition to the war. • In December 1969, the US government instituted a draft lottery, which eliminated most deferments. • In the April 1970, Nixon authorized an invasion of Cambodia, which many viewed as an escalation of the war • These events led to increased protests amongst college students. • At Kent State University in Ohio, 4 students were killed after the Ohio National Guard fired upon an unarmed crowd that would not disperse. • Further protests ensued at other campuses across the country

13. Building the US Army • Many college students were also angry because they did not have the right to vote. • Some states set the minimum voting age at above 18. • Supreme Court ruled in Oregon v. Mitchell (1970) that the federal government could not force states to lower their age restriction for state elections, only federal ones • The 26th Amendment was ratified in 1971 in response, lowering the voting age to 18 for all states.