8. Research

1. AL AKHAWAYN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS STUDIES 8. Research Lecture by Dr. Mohammed Ibahrine based on Seitel’s The Practice of Public Relations

2. Lexical Definition: • Testimonial is a formal letter testifying to a person’s character or qualification • Testimonial proof is a parole evidence

3. Data • There is no data, only facts • Data are produced, when a researcher recorded his/her observations • Data are a conscious record of a particular part of reality • From an epistemological point of view, there are no given data

4. Knowledge and information • According to Daniel Bell, knowledge • “Is a set of organized statements of facts or ideas, presenting a reasoned judgment or an experimental result, which is transmitted to others through some communication medium in some systematic form” (cited after Castells, 1996: 17)

5. Knowledge and information • According to Machlup, Information: • “the communication of knowledge” • According to Porat, Information: • “is data that have been organized and communicated” (cited after Castells, 1996: 17)

6. Typical Sources of Theoretical Research • Theoretical material • Encyclopedia, Handbooks, Books, Academic Journals, online resources • Magazines and newspapers • Definitions • Concepts • Models • Approach • Paradigms • Empirical case studies

7. What is Research • Research is the systematic collection and interpretation of information to increase understanding • Research must be the obligatory first step in any project • Research becomes essential in helping realize management’s goals

8. 2.1. Planned Process to influence Public Opinion • What is the process through which public relations might influence public opinion? • John Marston suggested a four step model based on specific functions: • 1) Research: • 2) Action: • 3) Communication: • 4) Evaluation:

9. 2.1. Planned Process to influence Public Opinion • For John Marston, whenever a public relations professional is faced with an assignment she or he should apply Marston’s R-A-C-E • In 1997, the Institute for Public Relations Research and Education • offered six guiding principles in setting standards for public relations research

10. Principles of Public Relations Research • 1. Establishing clear program objectives and desired outcomes tied directly to business goals • 2. Differentiating between • measuring public relations “outputs” generally short-term (amount of press coverage) • and measuring public relations “outcomes” usually more far reaching (changing attitudes)

11. Principles of Public Relations Research • 3. Measuring media content as a first step in the public relations evaluation process • 4. Understanding that no one technique can expect to evaluate public relations effectiveness (a combination of research techniques) • Media analysis • Cyberspace analysis • Focus groups • Polls • Survey

12. Lexical Definition Poll: a) the process of voting at an election. B) the counting of votes at an election Opinion poll record the opinion of a person or group in an opinion poll

13. Principles of Public Relations Research • 5. Being wary of attempts to compare public relations effectiveness with advertising effectiveness • 6. The most trustworthy measurement of public relations effectiveness is that which stems from an organization with clearly identify key messages, target audiences, and desired channels of communication

14. Types of Public Relations Research • Research is conducted to do three things: • 1. describe a process, situation or a phenomenon • 2. explain why something is important, what its causes are, and what effect it will have • 3. predict what probably will happen if we do or do not take action

15. Types of Public Relations Research • Primary research in public relations is either theoretical or applied • Applied research resolves practical problems • Theoretical research aids understanding of a public relations process

16. Applied Research • In public relations work, applied research can be either • Strategic or • evaluative • Strategic is used primarily in program development • To determine program objectives • To develop message strategies • To establish benchmarks (point of reference/standard)

17. Applied Research • Evaluative research is conducted primarily • To determine whether a public relations program has accomplished its goals and objectives

18. Theoretical Research • Theoretical research is more • Abstract • Conceptual • than applied research

19. Theoretical Research • It helps build theories in public relations work about • Why people communicate • How public opinion is formed • How a public is created

20. Secondary Research • Secondary research is research on the cheap • Desk research uses data that have been collected for other purposes than your own • Among the typical sources of secondary research are the following:

21. Secondary Research • Industry trade journals • Government • Websites • Informal contacts • Published company accounts • Business libraries • Professional institutes and organizations • Omnibus survey • Census data • Public records

22. Secondary Research • Because public relations budgets are limited • It always makes sense first to consider secondary sources in launching a research efforts

23. Methods of Public Relations Research • Three primary forms of public relations research dominate the field: • 1. Surveys • 2. Communication audits • 3. Unobtrusive methods

24. Methods of Public Relations Research • 1. Survey research: is one of the most frequently used research methods in public relations • Two types of surveys: • 1.1 Descriptive surveys • 1.2 Explanatory surveys

25. Methods of Public Relations Research • 1.1 Descriptive surveys: offer a snapshot of a current situation or condition • A typical public opinion poll is a prime example

26. Methods of Public Relations Research • 1.2 Explanatory surveys: are concerned with cause and effect • The purpose of explanatory surveys is • To explain why a current situation or condition exists • To offer explanations for opinions and attitudes

27. Methods of Public Relations Research • Surveys generally consists of four elements: • 1. Sample • 2. Questionnaire • 3. Interview • 4. Analysis of results

28. Methods of Public Relations Research • 1. Sample: or selected target group and must be representative of the total public whose views are sought • 2. Random Sampling: in random sampling two properties are essential: • Equality means that no element has any greater or lesser chance • Independence means that selecting any one element in no way influences the selection of any element • 3. Nonrandom Sampling: Nonrandom samples come in three types: convenience, quota and volunteer

29. Methods of Public Relations Research • The questionnaire: You should consider your objective in doing the study • You should observe the following in designing the questionnaire • Keep it short • Use structured rather than open-ended questions • Measure the intensity of feelings • Avoid using loaded words and questions • Avoid using double-barreled loaded words and questions • Pretest • Attach a letter explaining how important the respondents’ answers • Follow up your first mailing • Send out more questionnaires than you think necessary

30. Methods of Public Relations Research • Interviews: can provide a more personal, firsthand feel for public opinion • Interview panels can range from • Focus groups of randomly selected average people • Delphi panels of so-called opinion leaders

31. Methods of Public Relations Research • Interviews can be conducted in a a number of ways: • Face-to-face (Drop-off Interview + Intercept Interviews) • Telephone (Telephone Interviews) • Mail (Mail Interviews) • The Internet (Internet Interviews) • Delphi Interviews

32. Methods of Public Relations Research • Focus groups: This approach is used with increasing frequency in public relations today • It can be conducted through • one-on-one • Survey panel

33. Methods of Public Relations Research • Focus groups should be organized with the following guidelines in mind: • Define your objective and audience • Recruit your group • Conduct enough focus group • Use a discussion guide • Choose proper facilities

34. Methods of Public Relations Research • Result analysis: means to check • The validity • The reliability • The levels of statistical significance • before concrete recommendations based on survey data

35. Communication Audits • Communication audits are typically used to analyze the standing of a company with its employees or community neighbors to assess the routine communication vehicles such as • Manual reports • News release • Examine an organization's performance as a corporate citizens

36. Communication Audits • Purpose: • Communication Audit (CA) presents a complete analysis of an organization's internal and external communications designed to determine communication needs, policies, practices, and capabilities • The results are used by management to make informed decisions about future communication needs and goals

37. Communication Audits • The results are used by management to make informed decisions about future communication needs and goals

38. Communication Audits • Scope: • The scope of an audit may be as broad or as narrow as the size of the organization's demands • An audit can uncover misunderstandings and information barriers as well as opportunities

39. Communication Audits • Subject: • Typically, audits are used to provide information on issues such as the following: • Objectives and goals-short and long term • Existing communication vehicles-publications, manuals, slides, reports and correspondence • Bottlenecked information flows • Conflicting or nonexisting notions about what the organization is and does

40. Communication Audits • Methodology: • CA is a straightforward analysis • Pertinent literature review • Competitive literature is then reviewed for purposes of comparison and contrast • Interview with top management • Recommendations

41. Communication Audits • Methodology: • The most effective CAs start with a researcher who • Is familiar with the public to be studied • Understands the attitudes of the target public toward the organization • Recognizes the issues of concern to the target public • Understands the relative power of the target public vis-à-vis other publics

42. Unobtrusive Methods • Fact-finding: • Of the various unobtrusive methods of data collection of public relations, the most widely used is fact-finding • Facts are the bricks and mortar of public relations • Most essential data can be filed in publications

43. Unobtrusive Methods • Content analysis: • Its primary purpose is to describe a message or a set of messages • Content analysis might be organized according to the following specific criteria • Frequency of coverage • Placement within the paper • People reached • Message conveyed • Editing of release • Attitude conveyed

44. Unobtrusive Methods • Readability study: • Do the written messages fit the right educational level of the targeted audience • Typical measurements include Flesch Formula, the FOG Index and the SMOG Index • The greater the number of syllables in a passage, the more difficult and less readable the text