FINAL SPRING REVIEW

1. FINAL SPRING REVIEW

2. Aquarium Curiosity • In aquarium, you are curious to see if lowering the pH has an effect on the fish. • What is your hypothesis? • If I lower the pH levels of the aquarium to 4.0, then the fish will die.

3. Make an experimental procedure for this experiment • Remember, it must include both an experimental group and a control group. • 1. Have two identical fish tanks. • 2. One fish tank will have water with a pH of 7.0. • 3. One fish tank will have water with a pH of 4.0. • Which tank is the experimental group? • The fish tank with a pH of 4.0. • Which tank is the control group? • The fish tank with a pH of 7.0. • What are some constants that you can have? • Same number of fish, same amount of water, the fish receive the same amount of food, same temperature of water, etc.

4. Observation • You look at each tank, and this is what you see. pH 7.0 Tank Day 2 Day 1 Day 3 pH 4.0 Tank Day 1 Day 2 Day 3

5. Create A Graph • Based on your observations, create a graph. Number of Living Fish What was your dependent variable? What was your independent variable? Number of living fish pH level

6. Converting a bar graph to a line graph • In Arizona, zombies are a constant problem during the summer vacation season. To combat zombies, the Arizona Zombiefication Service decided to spray a zombicide called ZZT. This zombicide was used on a population of 100 zombies with 3 genotypes in the Metro Center parking lot. Zombies with genotype bb and Bb are easily killed by the ZZT, but zombies with genotype BB are not affected. Draw a line graph that shows how the entire population of zombies in the parking lot would change after spraying of ZZT. Why would the population increase after a while? The population that is unaffected by ZZT with the genotype BB, would flourish.

7. Reading graphs-Zombie Apocolypse • Humans can be destructive on the environment and the native species that live there. In the Spring of 2088, a zombie apocalypse broke out and reduced the human population. With the advent of ZZT, the zombie hoards were reduced. • A scientist wanted to know what effects the rebounding human population would have on wild animal species. He took two sites, and spread ZZT with one site (reducing the zombie population, experimental site), and let the other site flourish with zombies (control site). • These are the results.

8. Interpret Graphs • Based on the graph, which site contained the most wild animal species? • The control sites. • What did the spreading of ZZT do to the zombie population in the experimental sites? • Reduce the zombie population. • What did the spreading of ZZT do to the human population in the experimental sites? • By reducing the zombie population, it would allow the human population to flourish. • Why would there be more wild animal species in the areas without ZZT? • If humans are destructive to the environment, then by having larger populations they would destroy the habitat of the wild animal species in the experimental sites.

9. What is an investigative question? • Lisa wants to do an experiment on a hair product she’s seen advertised all over television. Rogooti claims to increase the speed of hair growth. • What should Lisa’s investigative question be? • Does Rogooti speed up hair growth?

10. What is a hypothesis? • Lisa’s investigative question is “Does Rogooti speed up hair growth?” What would her hypothesis be? • If a person uses Rogooti, then their hair will grow faster. • All hypotheses are in the “If, then” format.

11. How do you test a hypothesis? • How should Lisa test her hypothesis? • She can apply Rogooti to some members of her family (Marge and Homer) and measure the growth of their hair after a month. • How does she know that Rogooti increased the growth of their hair? • She can measure the hair growth of Marge and Homer for a month without Rogooti and compare it to the growth of their hair with Rogooti.

12. What are experimental variables? • In Lisa’s experiment what is the: • Independent variable? • Applying the Rogooti to Marge and Homer’s hair. • Remember, the independent variable is what the scientist manipulates! • Dependent variable? • The amount the hair has grown. • The dependent variable is what the scientist measures! • Control? • The measurement of hair growth WITHOUT Rogooti. • The control is something you can COMPARE the results to.

13. How do you interpret a data table? • Lisa recorded her results in this table. • What should her conclusion be? • Her conclusion should be that Rigooti works!

14. How do you graph information? • How should Lisa graph her information? • The independent variable is on the X-axis • The dependent variable is on the Y-axis • You can compare the control AND the variables by doing a multi-line graph! Lisa’s Rigooti Experiment Growth in cm

15. How do you confirm experimental data? • To confirm the results of her experiment, Lisa should… • Do the experiment again • Have more test subjects

16. How do you TRANSCRIBE DNA? • Here is a string of DNA: • DNA = C C T A C G G G A T T C • mRNA = • To TRANSCRIBE the DNA, you have to make it into mRNA. • Adenine pairs with Uracil • Guanine pairs with Cytosine • Thymine pairs with Adenine • This process takes place in the NUCLEUS! • The DNA strand is too large to leave the nucleus, but the mRNA strand can. G G A U G C C C U A A G

17. How do you TRANSLATE DNA? • Now you have your new mRNA strand! • G G A U G C C C U A A G • It is smaller than the DNA strand, and can leave the nucleus for the cytoplasm. • Once in the cytoplasm, it hooks up with a ribosome, that “reads” the mRNA strand three nucleotides at a time (a codon) with the help of tRNA. • This process is TRANSLATION.

18. aa3 3-tRNA G A A How do you TRANSLATE DNA? peptide bond aa1 ribosome aa2 1-tRNA 2-tRNA Anti-codon U A C G A U A U G C U A C U U C G A hydrogen bonds codon mRNA

19. How do you TRANSLATE DNA? • Every three nucleotides on the mRNA is a codon. • Every codon has an anti-codon that carries an amino acid! • As tRNA brings its anti-codons (and amino acids) to the mRNA strand, it builds PROTEINS! • We know which amino acids go with each codons because there is a universal code. • Our mRNA strand: G G A U G C CC U A A G • Is coding for: GGA = Glycine • UGC= Cysteine • CCU= Proline • AAG= Lysine

20. Where does transcription and translation take place? • REMEMBER: • TRANSCRIPTION is in the NUCLEUS! • TRANSLATION is in the CYTOPLASM!

21. What is the genotypic and phenotypic ratio? • A loving couple wants to have children. They are both heterozygous for brown eyes. They want a blue-eyed child. What are their chances? • Genotype • Gene combination for a trait (Bb, BB, bb) • Phenotype • The physical feature resulting from the trait. (brown eyes or blue eyes) • Mom has the genotype Bb. • Dad has the genotype Bb.

22. What is the genotypic and phenotypic ratio? • The genotypic ratio is 1:2:1 or BB : Bb,Bb : bb • The phenotypic ratio is 3:1 or brown, brown, brown : blue Mom has genotype: Bb Dad has genotype: Bb B b B B B B b b B b b b

23. Who is Gregor Mendel? • Mendel studied genetics through the use of math, probability and pea plants. • He found that variation occurs through the inheritance of individual alleles from each parent • Dominant alleles mask recessive alleles (TT- tall, Tt- tall) • Recessive alleles are only expressed when both present (tt- short)

24. What conditions promote the inheritance of genetic traits? Jaguar Fossil • Fitness • Fitness is a measure of the ability to survive and produce more offspring relative to other members of the population in a given environment. • After the climate change, jaguars that had larger teeth and jaws had a higher fitness than other jaguars in the populations. Modern Jaguar Skull

25. What is the difference between incomplete and codominance? Incomplete Dominance • The offspring will have a phenotype somewhat in between the phenotypes of the two parents. • Co-Dominance • Both alleles are expressed in the offspring. Parents: MOM DAD

26. What evidence supports evolution? • Fossils • Fossils show changes in organisms through time. • Embryology • Similar features in the embryos of different organisms suggests evolution from a distant common ancestor. • Comparative Anatomy • Homologous, analogous, and vestigial structures give a peek in to the history of changes that have occurred in organisms. • DNA • DNA studies show entire gene sequences in common between organisms. Pig Dolphin Human

27. What is comparative anatomy? • Homologous structures • Features that have SIMILAR STRUCTURES but DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS • Analogous structures • Features that have the SAME FUNCTION but DIFFERENT STRUCTURES • Vestigial structures • Remnants of structures that ONCE HAD A FUNCTION but NO LONGER DO

28. What are patterns in the fossil record? • Punctuated Equilibrium • Bursts of evolutionary activity are followed by long periods of stability. • Adaptive Radiation • The diversification of one ancestral species into many descendent species. • Gradualism • The idea that evolution is a slow and steady process. Frilled Sharks have been around for millions of years. Anolis lizards have undergone adaptive radiation on the Caribbean Islands. The last Golden Toad was seen in 1989. It is thought that a combination of global warming and pollution lead to its extinction.

29. How do genetics support the idea of evolution? • The basic definition of evolution is a change in the gene pool of a population of organisms over time. • All of evolution is based on genetic change. • Genetic similarities between two organisms point to a common ancestor. • By following mutation rates, scientists can guestimate how far back two species diverged from a common ancestor. Bonobo Chimpanzee By looking at the accumulated mutations in the DNA of Bonobos and Chimpanzees, scientists have determined that these two species separated from a common ancestor less than one million years ago.

30. What is natural selection? • Natural selection is a mechanism by which individuals that have inherited beneficial adaptations produce more offspring on average than do other individuals. • In nature, the environment is the selective agent. • Therefore, characteristics are selected only if they give advantages to individuals in the environment.

31. What are the causes and effects of natural selection? • There are four main principles to the theory of natural selection: • Variation • Heritable differences, or variations, exist in every population • Overpopulation • Organisms have more offspring than can survive. • Adaptation • Sometimes, a certain variation allows an individual to survive better than other individuals it competes against in its environment. • Descent with Modification • More individuals will have the variation in every following generation.

32. What are the causes and effects of natural selection? • Descent With Modification • Over time, natural selection will result in species with adaptations that are well suited for survival and reproduction in an environment. • More individuals will have the trait in every following generation, as long as the environmental conditions continue to remain beneficial for that trait.

33. How do new species emerge? Isolating Mechanisms • To make new species, the gene pools of the populations must become separated. • Reproductive Isolation • Reproductive isolation occurs when members of different populations can no longer successfully mate with one another. • Behavioral Isolation • Occurs when two populations are capable of interbreeding but have differences in courtship rituals or other reproductive strategies. • Geographic Isolation • Two populations are separated by a geographic barriers such as rivers, mountains, or bodies of water. • Temporal Isolation • Two or more species reproduce at different times.

34. What are the characteristics of species? • A species is a group of organisms that breed with one another and produce fertile offspring. Chinstrap Penguin Emperor Penguin Macaroni Penguin

35. What is a species? • All of these lizards live near each other and eat the same types of food. Populations A and B will mate together where their populations come into contact with each other (the overlapping circle) and produce fertile offspring. • How many species are represented by this graph? • 6! • Because A and B can breed and produce fertile offspring, they are considered to be a single species. A C D C B E G F

36. What are allele frequencies? • Genetic variation is stored in a population’s gene pool—the combined alleles of all the individuals in a population. • Different combinations of alleles in a gene pool can be formed when organisms mate and have offspring. • Each allele exists at a certain rate, or frequency. • An allele frequency is a measure of how common a certain allele is in the population.

37. How do allele frequencies change? • Mutation • A mutation is a random change in the DNA of a gene. • Recombination • Most recombination occurs during meiosis—through crossing over. • Hybridization • The crossing of two different species that share common genes.

38. How do you graph allele frequencies? • Normal Distribution • Most traits will fall under normal distribution (bell curve) • Directional Selection • When natural selection favors phenotypes at one extreme of a trait’s range. • Stabilizing Selection • When natural selection favors phenotypes in the middle of a trait’s range. • Disruptive Selection • When natural selection favors both extreme phenotypes, while individuals with intermediate phenotypes are selected against. Normal Directional Stabilizing Disruptive

39. How do humans influence allele frequency? • Genetic Drift • Genetic drift causes the LOSS of genetic diversity in a population. • Bottleneck Effect • The bottleneck effect happens when an event greatly reduces the size of the population. • Founder Effect • The founder effect happens after a small number of individuals colonize a new area.

40. How does the environment influence allele frequency? • Industrial Melanism • Refers to the genetic darkening of species in response to pollutants. • Originally, the vast majority of peppered moths had light coloration, which effectively camouflaged them against the light-colored trees and lichens upon which they rested. • Widespread pollution during the Industrial Revolution in England, many of the lichens died out, and the trees which peppered moths rested on became blackened by soot, causing most of the light-colored moths to die off due to predation. • At the same time, the dark-colored moths flourished because of their ability to hide on the darkened trees. • Since then, with improved environmental standards, light-colored peppered moths have again become common.

41. How does the environment influence allele frequency? • Peppered coloration (PP and Pp) is dominant to black coloration (pp) in moths. • Which moth phenotype would have an increased fitness after the industrial revolution? • Soot blackening the trees caused most of the light-colored moths to die off due to predation. • At the same time, the dark-colored moths flourished because of their ability to hide on the darkened trees. • Fitness is the ability to outbreed your competitors!

42. How does immigration affect allele frequency? • Gene Flow • The movement of alleles from one population to another is called gene flow. • For many animals, gene flow occurs when individuals move between populations. • For example: Certain birds leave their nesting areas once they are able to fly. • These birds most likely join new populations. • The alleles that these birds have then become a part of another population’s gene pool. • Gene flow increases the genetic variation of the receiving population.

43. Who is Charles Darwin? • Darwin is a naturalist who studied variations in organisms, geology and fossils. • He wrote a book called On the Origin of Species that explained how natural selection occurs. • He thought that traits were blended and was unaware of Mendel’s studies on how heritable characteristics are inherited distinctly from each parent which led to variation in offspring. • Darwin’s idea of natural selection helped to explain that traits will be passed to future generations and increase variation in members of a population.

44. What is the difference between biotic and abiotic factors? • Biotic • Factors that are living things, such as plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria. • Abiotic • Factors that are non-living things such as moisture, temperature, wind, sunlight, and soil. The balance of these factors determines which living things can survive in a particular environment.

45. What influences do biotic and abiotic factors have on populations? • Density-Dependent Limiting Factors • A limiting factor that depends on population size. • Usually includes biotic factors • Competition • Predation • Parasitism • Disease • Density-Independent Limiting Factors • Affect all populations in similar ways, regardless of the population size. • Usually includes abiotic factors • Fire • Drought

46. What are some differences and similarities between heterotrophs and autotrophs? • Autotrophs • Also known as producers • Organisms that get their energy from non-living resources, meaning—they make their own food. • Heterotrophs • Also known as consumers • Organisms that get their energy by eating other living or once-living resources, such as plants and animals.

47. How do you interpret a food chain? • A food chain is a sequence that links species by their feeding relationships. • This model chain only shows the connection between ONE producer and a SINGLE chain of consumers within an ecosystem. • Energy flows from PRODUCER TO CONSUMER

48. Compare a food chain and an energy pyramid. • An energy pyramid is a diagram that compares the energy used by producers, primary consumers, and other trophic levels. • As energy moves up the food chain—IT DECREASES • Those organisms at the top of the food chain, have the lease amount of energy.

49. Food Webs • Show complex food relationships in ecosystems. • Arrows show the movement of energy through the food web. • Pick out a single food chain in this web. • Fungi to squirrel to hawk!

50. How do biomass levels change through food webs and energy pyramids? • Biomass pyramid • Diagram that compares the biomass of different trophic levels within an ecosystem. • It provides a picture of the mass of producers needed to support primary consumers, the mass of primary consumers needed to support secondary consumers, and so on. • As you go UP the food chain biomass DECREASES 5 Hawks 5,000 snakes 500,000 bunnies 5,000,0000 blades of grass