INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY Peer Instruction Clicker Activities

1. INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGYPeer Instruction Clicker Activities Marcus W. Dickson, Ph.D. Anna Michelle Wright Wayne State University

2. The Science of Psychology

3. Peer Instruction Evolutionary Psychologists say that men generally prefer to mate with younger women because of the increased chances of healthy babies. Ashton Kutcher is 31, and Demi Moore is 46, and you can probably think of other examples counter to the evolutionary psychologists argument. What does this say about the validity of evolution, and of efforts to explain psychological processes through evolutionary processes? • It provides evidence that evolution is false. • It says nothing about physical evolution, but suggests that human psychology is not affected by evolution. • It says nothing about the validity of evolution as an explanation for physical or psychological processes. • It is “the exception that proves the rule.”

4. Peer Instruction What is the most appropriate final response in this comic strip? • Nah, I still don’t get statistics. • Yes, my new knowledge is “significant”! • Well, maybe. • I don’t know – maybe it’s “variable”! Courtesy of XKCD.com

5. The Biological Perspective

6. Peer Instruction The other day I baked chocolate chip cookies for some friends. I pulled the pan out of the oven using an oven mitt and then let the cookies “cool” for a minute. When I moved the pan to the counter I used a thin dishcloth that offered less protection from the hot pan. The pan was hot, really hot, but I didn’t drop the pan even though it was too hot to hold. I just moved the pan hurriedly and then “shook the burn out” after I set the pan down. If the withdrawal reflex is automatic, then how was I able to control my urge to drop the hot pan? • I controlled the sensory neuron that relayed information to the brain. • I inhibited a motor neuron by means of an inhibitory interneuron. • I excited a reflex arc and allowed only efferent neurons to become active. • I delayed the action potential until after I sat the pan down.

7. Peer Instruction I’ve often heard that people only use 10% of their brain. However, even a relatively simple task like playing a piano or even just tapping along to music requires many parts of the brain to be active -- well over 10%. In fact, I’ll bet that you have a tough time figuring out which part of the brain would most likely NOT be activated by playing the piano? • Pons • Pituitary gland • Hippocampus • Thalamus • Fornix

8. Sensation and Perception

9. Peer Instruction Have you ever noticed that your grandparents or other older people often turn up the T.V. so loud that it is difficult to sit in the same room with them? Based on what you have learned so far, why do they turn up the T.V. so loud? • Years of natural earwax build-up, deep inside the ear, dampens most sounds. • Older adults have a hard time hearing certain pitches, so they turn up everything. • Aging creates a less sensitive cochlear nerve and thus a stronger sound is required to create an action potential. • Normal aging causes a reduction in cochlear cells, specifically hair cells.

10. Peer Instruction Jack the Ripper was a serial killer in London in the 1880s, and he has never been identified. At the time of his crimes, one suggestion was that the police should open up the victims’ eyelids and look at their retinas, in hopes that the last sight they saw would have been of the killer’s face, and would be retained on the retina.  Why was this not an effective strategy for catching the killer? • Because the image on the retinas was upside down and the police had no way to invert it. • Because the image on the retina is very small and they had no way to magnify it. • Because of retinal disparity – the images in the two eyes were just enough different that they couldn’t be interpreted. • Because the image on the retina is projected light, and it would go away as soon as the victim’s eyes closed.

11. Peer Instruction It has been said a dead person can help solve a murder. Is it true that you can take out a dead person’s eye and use it to find out the last person or thing he or she saw, and thus maybe identify the killer? • Yes, because photoreceptors remain active (even in dead people) until another object or person is seen. • Yes, but everything will be upside down because the eyes work by inverting what is seen. • No, because photoreceptors work by depolarizing and quickly return to their set point. • No, because any remaining image would be hard to tell apart from the opponent afterimage.

12. Consciousness

13. Peer Instruction Some animals, such as ducks, have adapted an amazing method of sleeping about 8 hours a day without drowning or becoming prey. Scientists refer to this as unihemispheric sleep, where one brain hemisphere sleeps while the other remains awake. Imagine that you see a duck with her right eye open and left eye closed. What patterns of activity would you expect in this duck’s brain? • right hemisphere alpha waves; left hemisphere beta waves • right hemisphere REM stage; left hemisphere delta waves • right hemisphere theta waves; left hemisphere delta waves • right hemisphere delta waves; left hemisphere beta waves • right hemisphere beta waves; left hemisphere sleep spindles

14. Peer Instruction You’ve probably heard stories about people getting their pets high on marijuana. Usually, animals do not have voluntary access to drugs. When they do have access to drugs, will non-human animals seek out drugs, and can they become addicted to drugs like humans can?  • Yes. Drugs typically work by mimicking neurotransmitters which are evolutionarily old and present in many animals, including humans. Physical addiction is thus possible for non-human animals. • No. Experiencing effects of psychoactive drugs requires a state of altered consciousness. Only humans experience true consciousness. • Yes. Animals will seek drugs, but only when the search does not interfere with the normal instinctive behavior, such as mating and grooming. They will search, but will not become addicted. • No. Non-human animals cannot experience psychological dependence, and both psychological and physical dependence are necessary for true addiction.

15. Learning

16. Peer Instruction Joy consistently reads pop-culture and fashion magazines. She also enjoys watching reality dating shows. Although she appears to have a healthy body image, she does occasionally dress like the celebrities in the fashion magazines. She insists she does not want to look or act like the celebrities, but some friends are weary of her “tasteless” choices. What theory of learning could best explain how she is being affected by the magazines and TV. shows? • Latent learning • Observational learning • Operant conditioning • Learned helplessness • Insight learning

17. Peer Instruction When designing the “Little Albert” studies, the researchers had a lot of flexibility to choose how to design the study. However, some aspects of the study were not flexible (in other words, once they picked A, the had no choice about B). Which of these is true in describing the Little Albert studies (and all classical conditioning studies)? • Once they picked the UCS, there was no choice in the UCR. • Once they picked the CR, there was no choice in the NS. • Once they picked the CS, there was no choice in the UCR. • Once they picked the NS, there was no choice in the UCS. • Once they picked the UCR, there was no choice in the CS.

18. Peer Instruction Tony is 6 years old, with a father who is usually busy with work, and who leaves most parental decisions to Tony’s mother. Recently, Tony has begun to disobey his mother’s instructions. When this happens, Tony’s father will spank him and give him a lecture about obedience. Afterwards, Tony disobeys his mother even more than before. What conclusion(s) can we reach? • The Law of Effect is not really a law, because it does not explain Tony’s behavior – Tony is doing the behavior more even though the behavior is being punished. • The Law of Effect does explain Tony’s behavior – Tony is being rewarded for his behavior, so it happens more often. • Tony likely has a psychological disorder that leads to this behavior. • Tony’s parents are relying on Classical Conditioning instead of Operant Conditioning.

19. Peer Instruction Many people watch professional sports on television, sometimes for many hours a week. The theory of observational learning says that we can learn new behavior by observing model. If observational learning occurs, why can’t the average person learn to play sports at a professional level? • Because the theory of observational learning is false – watching people do things doesn’t help us learn how to do them. • Because watching sports on television doesn’t meet the requirements for observational learning to occur. • Because observational learning only refers to relatively simple tasks, not to complex tasks like playing sports. • The average person can learn to perform sports at high levels – they are just not aware that they have that untapped potential.

20. Memory

21. Peer Instruction Given what you know about the reconstructive nature of long-term memory, the ability of the brain to reconsolidate new information into an old memory, and scripts, which memory would most likely be free from error and bias? • A memory of your first date with your future partner. • A memory of the last time you checked your e-mail. • An funny event from your childhood that you often talk about when you’re with your family. • A memory of the first college lecture you attended.

22. Peer Instruction Multi-tasking is the norm today. Some people will drive, listen to music, text, and snack on chips. Others will watch TV, talk to their roommates, and do their homework. Given what you know about memory, is this type of multi-tasking an effective use of time? • No. Short-term memory is easily disrupted which causes people to lose focus and switch from task to task in a time consuming fashion. • Yes. Long-term memory is used in most multi-tasking activities and long-term memory is unlimited in capacity and storage. • No. Long-term memory has a difficult time interacting with information from short-term memory creating an unnecessary delay when trying to multi-task. • Yes. Short-term memory can hold large amounts of echoic and iconic information which makes for easy multi-tasking.

23. Peer Instruction While riding in the subway, you look out the window and suddenly see a video ad. You learn that the video ad comes from a series of screens mounted in the tunnel. How does this technology work? • Each screen shows the whole video, and you see the right portion of the ad as you pass by. • Your eyes follow each screen as it passes by your window, and then you move your eyes to catch the next screen (just like when you read text and it appears to you as one continuous image). • Each screen shows one still image as you pass by, and iconic memory makes it look like a video. • The image is actually being projected within the train’s window, which is a flat plasma screen.

24. Cognition

25. Peer Instruction You may have heard that people who are highly motivated are better at problem solving. Based on what you know about creative problem solving, would you say this is a true statement? • Yes. When given enough time, highly motivated people are always better at problem solving than an unmotivated person. • No. Unconscious attributes, past experience, and even beliefs can prevent even a highly motivated person from being a good problem solver. • Yes. Problem solving is often methodical and highly motivated people need only follow the step-by-step process until an answer is reached. • No. Problem solving methods such as algorithms rely on creative thinking which may or may not be present in the highly motivated.

26. Peer Instruction When first presented with a red apple, Alex (African Grey Parrot) called the fruit “banerry.” Dr. Pepperberg realized she had not identified the fruit and his naming must have been a combination of banana (white, mushy inside) and cherry (red, round shape). Alex also called a shelled walnut a “cork-nut” because the texture was similar to the bottle corks he had encountered in the past. Using what you know, is Alex the Grey Parrot truly using language? • Yes. Alex added two morphemes together which is the only necessary requirement for true language. • No. Alex does not have the language acquisition device (LAD) and lacks the necessary brain structures to compensate. • Yes. Alex had developed the concept of “banana-ness” and “cherry-ness” which Vygotsky believed was the last step before true language. • No. Alex demonstrated advanced linguistic concepts, but did not demonstrate syntax, a necessary requirement for true language.

27. Development Across the Life Span

28. Peer Instruction When a magician makes an object “disappear,” a group of 6-month-old infants continues to look at the spot where the object was last, and then each infant appears surprised when the magician makes the object “reappear” in another location. You conclude that: • Researchers don’t know how to tell if an infant is really surprised, so I conclude nothing. • These infants are attracted to the bright colors of the magician’s costume, rather than to the object. • Piaget may have been wrong about when object permanence develops. • These children's cognitive development is more advanced than most children.

29. Peer Instruction Women in Asian cultures like Japan or China generally experience fewer of the negative symptoms associated with menopause than do women in western cultures like the United States or England, especially the psychologically-oriented symptoms like depression. What’s the best explanation for this? • Western cultures emphasize youth while Asian cultures respect older people more, and aging women thus have fewer negative feelings about aging in Asian cultures than in Western cultures. • Western cultures typically have less soy in their diet, and soy consumption has been shown to be negatively correlated with hot flashes. • A woman’s experience of menopause is hereditary, and Asian women’s genetics lead them to experience fewer symptoms of menopause than Western women do. • Women in Asian cultures tend to have fewer children, which has been shown to decrease estrogen-related menopausal changes.

30. Motivation and Emotion

31. Peer Instruction McClelland found that different countries had significant differences in the amount of achievement-oriented themes in their common children’s stories. What would you expect this to correlate with? • Number of wars started by that country • Number of children in the average family in each country • Average money saved per year by families in each country • Number of entrepreneurs in each country

32. Peer Instruction Most people believe that they would be happier if they had more money (that’s why the lottery is so popular). However, while average income (adjusted for inflation) has increased almost 300% in the last 50 years, the number of people describing themselves as “very happy” is essentially unchanged. You conclude: • The increase in income is not enough to lead to increased happiness. • The increase in income is too slow to lead to increased happiness. • Most people are incorrect in thinking that more money would make them happy.

33. Sexuality and Gender

34. Peer Instruction US law says that a hiring system that results in significant differences in the hiring rates for men and women is illegal, even if the difference in unintentional, UNLESS the organization can show a legitimate job-related reason why the difference exists. In which case could the organization most likely show such a reason? • A higher proportion of women are hired for a nursing job. • A higher proportion of men are hired for a firefighter job. • A higher proportion of women are hired for an elementary school teacher job. • A higher proportion of men are hired for a bus driver job.

35. Stress and Health

36. Peer Instruction Two Skinner boxes are wired so that a painful electrical shock can be administered through the floor. Box A has a lever that will turn off the shock. Box B has a lever that does nothing. The two boxes are linked so the shock starts at the same time for both, and when the rat in Box A turns off the shock, it turns off for both boxes. Painful shocks are administered dozens of times at random intervals over a several hour trial. Which rat will experience more stress symptoms, and why? • The rat in A, because he has to do something to turn off the shock. • The rat in B, because he is unable to do anything to control the shock. • Both rats will experience the same symptoms, because both experience the same levels of shock. • Neither rat will experience stress symptoms, because the shock can be easily turned off.

37. Peer Instruction You have a close friend who is showing all of the symptoms of burnout. You don’t think she’s a Type A person. All of the following might help her, but which one would likely be the LEAST helpful in resolving her problem? • Taking a vacation • Getting a new job in the same field • Joining the company bowling league • Negotiating with the boss for more decision-making authority in one part of the job.

38. Social Psychology

39. Peer Instruction Approach A Juan: “Can I ask a favor of you?” Emilio: “Yes, I suppose so.” Juan: “OK, here it is. I need to borrow $20.” Approach B Juan: “Emilio, I’ll be straight with you. I need to borrow $20.” • Approach A is more likely to work than Approach B. • Approach B is more likely to work than Approach A. • The two approaches are equally likely to work. • There’s no way to know which approach would work better.

40. Peer Instruction In Milgram’s studies, over 65% of subjects flipped all of the switches to “administer” the highest level of shock. But well over 80% of people surveyed say that they would never do harm another person in that way. How can that be? • Milgram’s studies unintentionally included very aggressive people as the sample. • People over-estimate the link between their attitudes and their behaviors. • Milgram’s studies happened a long time ago – it would be different today. • People just say that they wouldn’t harm others, when in fact they know that they really would.

41. Personality

42. Peer Instruction Sometimes a company will use a personality inventory (a “test”) as part of their hiring process. Is this a valid way to identify which applicants will be good employees? • No, because personality is too hard to measure with a test. • No, because personality doesn’t predict behavior. • Yes, because certain personality types are likely to do better at certain jobs. • Yes, because personality tests give reveal drives the employee probably wouldn’t want the company to know about.

43. Peer Instruction Imagine that you could use any one technique you wanted to identify employees for your company. You know that certain personality types do better at certain jobs. How will you find the right people for your company? • Do genetic screening on the applicant’s parents to determine his/her personality traits. • Have trained psychoanalysts use projective tests with applicants. • Use a well-established Big 5 measure of personality on applicants. • Gather information about the environment in which the applicant was raised when he/she was a child.

44. Peer Instruction More and more people are turning to online match-making services to help them find a mate. With regards to PERSONALITY, which information would be the most useful for such a service? In other words, what would provide the most valid and reliable information about your personality? • A blood sample for genetic screening purposes • A traditional Freudian psychoanalytic interview • A well-established Big Five measure • A social worker’s report about childhood home environment

45. Psychological Disorders

46. Peer Instruction The police are investigating a burglary of a therapist’s office, and believe that a client he saw on the day of the murder is the criminal. On the day of the crime, the therapist met with the following clients. Which one should the police look for first? • A male with disorganized schizophrenia • A female with dissociative identity disorder • A female with antisocial personality disorder • A male with bipolar disorder

47. Peer Instruction Some people argue that many psychological disorders are “fake” – that people pretend to have a disorder when really, they are fine. Which disorder would be easiest to fake convincingly? • Catatonic schizophrenia • Panic disorder with agoraphobia • Borderline personality disorder • Hypochondriasis

48. Psychological Therapies

49. Peer Instruction The first step in Systematic desensitization is relaxation training. What happens if you skip that step and just do the other two? • Nothing – the client doesn’t get better or worse. The treatment is just a waste of time. • The client may get better, and may get worse – it’s hard to predict in that case. • The client gets better, but not as quickly or as much as if you did all three steps. • The client gets worse than before.

50. Peer Instruction For which form of therapy would it be most important to explain what will happen in therapy and have the client’s permission prior to beginning treatment? • Aversion therapy • Insight therapy • Psychoanalysis • Group therapy