Unit – V Tools of Research

1. Unit – VTools of Research J S Patil Tools of Research

2. Observation J S Patil Tools of Research

3. Observation Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a human), which senses and assimilates the knowledge of a phenomenon, or the recording of data using instruments. The term may also refer to any datum collected during this activity. Observation in philosophical terms is the process of filtering sensoryinformation through the thought process. Input is received via hearing, sight, smell, taste, or touch and then analyzed through either rational or irrational thought. The defining characteristic of observation is that it involves drawing conclusions, as well as building personal views about how to handle similar situations in the future, rather than simply registering that something has happened. But according to JidduKrishnamurti, observation does not imply drawing conclusions and building personal views. He stressed the non-accumulation of knowledge. Such an observation, he asserted, make the mind free. J S Patil Tools of Research

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7. Observation Flow Chart - I J S Patil Tools of Research

8. Observation Flow Chart - II J S Patil Tools of Research

9. Observation Flow Chart - III J S Patil Tools of Research

10. Naturalistic observation Naturalistic observation is a method of observation, commonly used by psychologists, behavioral scientists and social scientists, that involves observing subjects in their natural habitats. Researchers take great care in avoiding making interferences with the behaviour they are observing by using methods. Objectively, studying events as they occur naturally, without intervention. (Manoli, Frank, 2007) They can be overt (the participants are aware they are being observed) or covert (the participants do not know they are being observed) There are obviously more ethical guidelines to take into consideration when a covert observation is being carried out. J S Patil Tools of Research

11. Observation in Social Sciences In the social sciences and general usage, the effect refers to how people change their behavior when aware of being watched (see Hawthorne effect and Observer's Paradox). For instance, in the armed forces, an announced inspection is used to see how well soldiers can do when they put their minds to it, while a surprise inspection is used to see how well prepared they generally are. J S Patil Tools of Research

12. Hawthorne effect • The Hawthorne effect describes a temporary change to behavior or performance in response to a change in the environmental conditions, with the response being typically an improvement. The term was coined in 1955 by Henry A. Landsberger[1] when analyzing older experiments from 1924-1932 at the Hawthorne Works (outside Chicago). Landsberger defined the Hawthorne effect as: • a short-term improvement caused by observing worker performance. J S Patil Tools of Research

13. Definitions of the Hawthorne effect An experimental effect in the direction expected but not for the reason expected; i.e., a significant positive effect that turns out to have no causal basis in the theoretical motivation for the intervention, but is apparently due to the effect on the participants of knowing themselves to be studied in connection with the outcomes measured. The Hawthorne Effect [is] the confounding that occurs if experimenters fail to realize how the consequences of subjects' performance affect what subjects do. People singled out for a study of any kind may improve their performance or behavior, not because of any specific condition being tested, but simply because of all the attention they receive. People will respond positively to any novel change in work environment. J S Patil Tools of Research

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15. Observation: Simple observation • Participant observation • Non-participant observation • Partly participant & partly non-participant observation J S Patil Tools of Research

16. Systematic observation • mechanical synchronizing devices, • team observation, • films and recordings, • schedules and inventories, • the development of elaborate categories for locating and coding observed behaviour quickly J S Patil Tools of Research

17. Participant observation Participant observation is a set of research strategies which aim to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals (such as a religious, occupational, or subcultural group, or a particular community) and their practices through an intensive involvement with people in their natural environment, often though not always over an extended period of time. The method originated in field work of social anthropologists, especially Bronisław Malinowski and his students in Britain, the students of Franz Boas in the US, and in the urban research of the Chicago School of sociology. J S Patil Tools of Research

18. Direct Observation J S Patil Tools of Research

19. OBSERVATION TABLE J S Patil Tools of Research

20. Questionnaire • For data from literate • Clues for drafting a good questionnaire • Evaluation of the questionnaire • Administering of the questionnaire • Eliciting information – follow up action • Storing of information gathered • Use of mailed questionnaire J S Patil Tools of Research

21. What is a Questionnaire? A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton. Questionnaires are used by sociologists, positivists prefer closed questions. Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be practical. As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to question construction and wording that exist in other types of opinion polls. J S Patil Tools of Research

22. Clues of a good questionnaire The respondent is drawn into the interview by awakening his interest. He is easily brought along from items which are simple to answer to those which are complex Not affronted by an early and sudden request for personal information. Never asked to give an answer which could be embarrassing without being given an opportunity to explain. Brought as smoothly as possible from one frame of reference to another rather than made to jump back and forth. J S Patil Tools of Research

23. Questionnaire construction Good questionnaire construction is critical to the success of a survey. Inappropriate questions, incorrect ordering of questions, incorrect scaling, or bad questionnaire format can make the survey valueless. A useful method for checking a questionnaire and making sure it is accurately capturing the intended information is to pretest among a smaller subset of target respondents. J S Patil Tools of Research

24. Questionnaire construction issues • The research objectives and frame of reference should be defined beforehand, including the questionnaire's context of time, budget, manpower, intrusion and privacy. • The nature of the expected responses should be defined and retained for interpretation of the responses, be it preferences (of products or services), facts, beliefs, feelings, descriptions of past behavior, or standards of action. • Unneeded questions are an expense to the researcher and an unwelcome imposition on the respondents. All questions should contribute to the objective(s) of the research J S Patil Tools of Research

25. Questionnaire construction issues • The topics should fit the respondents’ frame of reference. Their background may affect their interpretation of the questions. Respondents should have enough information or expertise to answer the questions truthfully. • The type of scale, index, or typology to be used shall be determined. • The types of questions (closed, multiple-choice, open) should fit the statistical data analysis techniques available. J S Patil Tools of Research

26. Questionnaire construction issues • Questions and prepared responses to choose from should be neutral as to intended outcome. A biased question or questionnaire encourages respondents to answer one way rather than another. Even questions without bias may leave respondents with expectations. • The order or “natural” grouping of questions is often relevant. Prior previous questions may bias later questions. • The wording should be kept simple: no technical or specialized words. • The meaning should be clear. Ambiguous words, equivocal sentence structures and negatives may cause misunderstanding, possibly invalidating questionnaire results. Double negatives should be reworded as positives. J S Patil Tools of Research

27. Questionnaire construction issues • If a survey question actually contains more than one issue, the researcher will not know which one the respondent is answering. Care should be taken to ask one question at a time. • The list of possible responses should be inclusive. Respondents should not find themselves with no category that fits their situation. One solution is to use a final category for “other ________”. • The possible responses should be mutually exclusive. Categories should not overlap. Respondents should not find themselves in more than one category, for example in both the “married” category and the “single” category - there may be need for a “not living with spouse” category. J S Patil Tools of Research

28. Questionnaire construction issues • Writing style should be conversational, yet concise and accurate and appropriate to the target audience. • Most people will not answer personal or intimate questions. • “Loaded” questions evoke emotional responses and may skew results. J S Patil Tools of Research

29. Questionnaire construction issues • Presentation of the questions on the page (or computer screen) and use of white space, colors, pictures, charts, or other graphics may affect respondent's interest or distract from the questions. • Numbering of questions may be helpful. • Questionnaires can be administered by research staff, by volunteers or self-administered by the respondents. Clear, detailed instructions are needed in either case, matching the needs of each audience. J S Patil Tools of Research

30. Types of questions • Contingency questions - A question that is answered only if the respondent gives a particular response to a previous question. This avoids asking questions of people that do not apply to them (for example, asking men if they have ever been pregnant). • Matrix questions - Identical response categories are assigned to multiple questions. The questions are placed one under the other, forming a matrix with response categories along the top and a list of questions down the side. This is an efficient use of page space and respondents’ time. • Closed ended questions - Respondents’ answers are limited to a fixed set of responses. Most scales are closed ended. Other types of closed ended questions include: • Yes/no questions - The respondent answers with a “yes” or a “no”. • Multiple choice - The respondent has several option from which to choose. • Scaled questions - Responses are graded on a continuum (example : rate the appearance of the product on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being the most preferred appearance). Examples of types of scales include the Likert scale, semantic differential scale, and (See scale for a complete list of scaling techniques.). • Open ended questions - No options or predefined categories are suggested. The respondent supplies their own answer without being constrained by a fixed set of possible responses. Examples of types of open ended questions include: • Completely unstructured - For example, “What is your opinion of questionnaires?” • Word association - Words are presented and the respondent mentions the first word that comes to mind. • Sentence completion - Respondents complete an incomplete sentence. For example, “The most important consideration in my decision to buy a new house is . . .” • Story completion - Respondents complete an incomplete story. • Picture completion - Respondents fill in an empty conversation balloon. • Thematic apperception test - Respondents explain a picture or make up a story about what they think is happening in the picture J S Patil Tools of Research

31. Question sequence • Questions should flow logically from one to the next. • The researcher must ensure that the answer to a question is not influenced by previous questions. • Questions should flow from the more general to the more specific. • Questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive. • Questions should flow from factual and behavioural questions to attitudinal and opinion questions. • Questions should flow from unaided to aided questions • According to the three stage theory (also called the sandwich theory), initial questions should be screening and rapport questions. Then in the second stage you ask all the product specific questions. In the last stage you ask demographic questions. J S Patil Tools of Research

32. Flow chart issuance or transmission to the respondent waiting for completion or return receipt after completion checking of the form filing of the form plus any additional records which may allow quick reference to it coding, which may be divided into several steps checking of the coding, whether done by spot checks of items or of whole interview forms tabulation, simple or complex tabular presentation; and checking of the tabular calculations. J S Patil Tools of Research

33. Flow of questions in the weight control module J S Patil Tools of Research

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38. 4. Interview schedule • For eliciting data from illiterate • For eliciting data from busy persons • For eliciting data of unique nature • For eliciting data of confidential nature • For eliciting data of sensitive nature • Careful drafting of the schedule • Administration procedure • Storage of date collected J S Patil Tools of Research

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43. Clues for Interview Develop alertness to the fact that there are many subliminal cues and one can learn to read them. Attempt to bring these cues to a conscious level, so that comparison can be made with the hunches of other observers and interviewers. Systematically check the predictions made from these hunches, to see which are correct. J S Patil Tools of Research

44. Organizational Structure Interview Rooms J S Patil Tools of Research

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46. interview chart J S Patil Tools of Research

47. Telephone Pre-Screen/Interview comprehensive screening program J S Patil Tools of Research

48. Video Interview Process flow chart J S Patil Tools of Research

49. A probation officer’s interview J S Patil Tools of Research

50. 5. Sampling • Need for sampling • Sampling facets • Representative • Random Sampling • Stratified Sampling • Adequate • Purposive or Quota Sampling J S Patil Tools of Research