CHAPTER SEVEN: MEMORY

1. CHAPTER SEVEN: MEMORY Learning Goal One: Identify three fundamental processes of memory. Learning Goal Two: Explain how memories are encoded.

2. The Nature of Memory • A. Memory is defined as the retention of information or experience over time. • B. Memory occurs through three important processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. • 1. Encoding occurs when we take in information from the world around us. • 2. Storage is when we do something with that information in order to remember it at a later stage. • 3. Retrieval is when we recall the information we stored.

3. Encoding • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0bzZIxo-ngk • Encoding is defined as the way in which information is processed for storage in memory. • Examples: Paying attention, processing deeply, elaborating, and using mental imagery.

4. Encoding: Levels of Processing

5. Attention • In order to encode information we must first pay attention to it. • Selective attentionoccurs when we attend only to certain things in the environment. We ignore other stimuli and only attend to a specific aspect of an experience. • Divided attentionoccurs when we have to pay attention to several different things at the same time. People who give divided attention to a memory task are less successful at encoding the information than are people who give full attention to the task. • Sustained attentionis the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. Studying your notes is a good example of this! • Divided attention can have negative effects on encoding. Multitasking,which involves dividing attention between two or more tasks, compromises the way information is getting into memory. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fDlYSPVro0Q

6. Levels of Processing • The shallow leveloccurs when we are paying attention to the physical attributes of a stimulus. • The intermediate leveloccurs when we recognize the stimulus and give it a name. • The deepest leveloccurs when we think of the stimulus’ meaning and make associations. The more associations we make, the deeper the processing. • Studies have shown that a person’s memory improves when processing at the deepest level.

7. Elaboration • Elaboration is how extensive processing is at any level. • Elaboration takes place when a person not only remembers the definition of a stimulus, but also adds meaning to it. Coming up with an example of the stimulus is an example of elaboration. • By elaborating on a stimulus, we are making that stimulus distinctive and unique. • The more unique the memory of the stimulus, the better we are able to remember it. • As encoding becomes more elaborate and unique, there is more information to be stored. • Relating materials to your own experience, self-referencing, is another effective way to elaborate on information.

8. Encoding: Elaboration elaboration can enhance memory number of mental connections vivid examples self-referencing effect

9. Imagery • 1. Alexander Luria (1968) studied S., a person with an amazing memory who could remember vast amounts of information in great detail. For example, S. could not only remember a list of seventy numbers but could recall them in the same order in which they appeared. • 2. S.’s amazing memory is a case of what we know as mnemonic ability, or skill in remembering. Page 211

10. Encoding: Imagery memory wizards (See page 211, figure 7.4) Records in memory dual-code hypothesis(Paivio) verbal code – word or label image code – detailed and distinctive image codes are stored as both superior to verbal codes alone A picture is worth a 1000 words!

11. Questions • 1. Akira Haraguchi demonstrated an amazing memory ability when he recited all 80,000 digits of pi. What process in the human memory system did he utilize? • A. encoding • B. storage • C. retrieval • D. recognizing • 2. What key process is critical when moving new information from sensory memory into short-term memory? • A. recall • B. retrieval • C. attention • D. analysis

12. Questions • 3. Your mom is always giving you grief about how you surf the web and send text messages while you are studying. You explain that multitasking does not affect your grades. Is your position supported by the information presented in the textbook? • A. Yes; several studies have confirmed that young adults do well on memory tests of information that was acquired while performing other tasks. • B. Yes; several studies have found that multitasking actually improves students’ grades. • C. No; studies have confirmed that the benefits associated with multitasking only apply to tasks that include listening to music. • D. No; studies have confirmed that individuals do not do well on memory tests of information that was acquired while performing other tasks.

13. Questions • 4. Which of the following is NOT one of the three main memory processes? • A. encoding • B. storage • C. retrieval • D. thinking • 5. Which of the following is NOT included in the encoding process? • A. paying attention • B. testing yourself • C. elaborating • D. using imagery

14. Answers • 1) C • 2) C • 3) D • 4) D • 5) B

15. Homework • Read Chapter 7 section 3, (Memory Storage) pages 212 to 223 and make detailed notes. • Complete worksheets 7.1 and 7.2 • Please define the terms and create detailed examples using imagery to make a lasting memory of the assignment.

16. Memory Storage • Learning Goal Three: Discuss how memories are stored. • Atkinson-ShiffrinTheory • Three systems are involved in memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

17. Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

18. Sensory Memory • Sensory memory holds information only briefly before it is either lost or transferred to short-term memory. • 2. Echoic memory(From the word echo) is auditory sensory memory. • 3. Iconic memory(From the word Icon or image)is visual sensory memory. • 4. George Sperling conducted the first research on sensory memory. (Memory is very short unless coupled with another sense)

19. George Sperling • George Sperling conducted the first type of research on iconic memory. He found that people could remember seeing as many as nine letters he had flashed on a screen for about 1/20 of a second, but the iconic memory was too brief for people to transfer all nine letters to short-term memory where they could be named, so they could only recall about half of them. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KD7cCUB-pks

20. Storage: Sensory Memory A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information. George Sperling’s (1960) research on Iconic Memory – free recall vs cued recall (brief perfect image then discarded) Echoic Memory

21. Storage: Retaining Information Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below: Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval

22. Short-Term Memory • Some of the information to which a person attends is transferred from sensory memory into short-term memory. • Information is held in short-term memory for about 30 seconds. • Most people can hold about 7 bits + or – 2 of information in short-term memory. This is known as memory span.

23. Short Term Memory • The stuff we encode from the sensory goes to STM. • Events are encoded visually, acoustically or semantically. • Working Memory

24. Chunking and Rehearsal • Chunking and rehearsal are two ways to improve short-term memory.Chunking involves grouping amounts of information larger than the 7 bits + or – 2 memory span into higher-order, single units. • Rehearsalinvolves repeating information over and over again as a way to remember it. The information retained by rehearsal can be held indefinitely unless there is some sort of interruption. Rehearsal works best when a person must only remember the information briefly and not for long-term retention, mainly because rehearsal does not involve deep processing.

25. Ways to remember things in STM…so they go to LTM F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M 1-4-9-2-1-7-7-6-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1 Chunking: • Organizing items into familiar, manageable units. • Acronyms are examples of chunking HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan,Erie, Superior ROY G. BIP = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Purple

26. Working Memory • Working memory, proposed by Alan Baddeley (2006, 2007) is a three-part system that temporarily holds information while a person is working on a cognitive task. Unlike long-term memory, working memory and its components have limited capacity. • The first part is the phonological loop, which stores speech-based information about the sounds of language. It includes an acoustic code and rehearsal. • The second part is called visuospatial working memory, which stores visual and spatial information, including visual imagery. The phonological loop and visuospatial working memory function independently and can be used concurrently for separate tasks.

27. Working Memory Model

28. Working Memory • The third part is called the central executive, which combines information from the phonological loop and visuospatial working memory. It also integrates information from long-term memory. • The concept of working memory can help us understand how brain damage affects cognitive skills. Some people have good working memory but poor long-term memory, while others have good long-term memory but problems with working memory. Deficits in working memory can be found in patients with Alzheimer disease. Baddeley (2006, 2007) feels these can be traced to the central executive, which coordinates different mental activities. This is a function with which Alzheimer patients have great difficulty.

29. Working Memory Duration Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal. CHJ MKT HIJ 547 547 544 541 … CH?? Duration of working memory is about 20 sec.

30. Working Memory Duration

31. Working Memory – An Alternative to STM Is Atkinson-Shiffrin’s theory too simplistic? Active Memory System phonological loop visuospatial working memory central executive

32. Three Box/Stage Model of MemoryAtkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory,b) short-term memory, and c) long-term memory

33. Long-Term Memory Long-term memoryis a relatively permanent memory storage base. There is a virtually unlimited amount of space for long-term memory storage.

34. Long Term Memory Unlimited storehouse of information. Lasts for Years.

35. Explicit Memory • Explicit memoryis also known as declarative memory. It is a type of memory for specific facts or events and information that can be verbally communicated. • A study conducted by Harry Bahrick found that any forgotten information from explicit memory is forgotten within the first three years after the memory was stored; after that, the forgetting leveled off. • Gradual learning is the key to permanent memory storage. If the information is learned and stored over time, there is a better chance that it will remain in explicit memory indefinitely.

36. Storing Memories Long-Term Potentiation • Synaptic Enhancement after learning (synaptic plasticity) • long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously. • In other words…they learn to fire together and get better at it…creating a memory.

37. Explicit Memory • Episodic memoryis a type of explicit memory. It stores information about where, what, and when information is occurring. Episodic memory is autobiographical, meaning that it pertains specifically to a person’s life. • Semantic memoryis a second type of explicit memory. This type of memory pertains to information about the world. It includes general, everyday, and academic knowledge but not the personal information of episodic memory. • Many explicit or declarative memories are neither purely episodic nor purely semantic. Tulving (1983, 2000) argues that episodic and semantic systems often work together in forming new memories.

38. Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories • Explicit Memory = Declarative memories -- facts and experiences that you consciously know and declare. • Implicit memory = Procedural memories & Conditioned learning.

39. Storing Memories • Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. • Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events

40. Explicit Memories • Episodic Memories -- Events • Semantic Memories – Facts & Meaning • Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories

41. Rehearsal &Spacing Effect • Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition • Hermann Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ • We retain information better when we rehearse over time (Spacing Effect) • DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!! • Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

42. Rehearsal Forgetting Curve

43. Implicit Memory • Implicit memoryis also known as nondeclarative memory. It is a type of memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without conscious memory of the experience. For example, a person may know how to type on a computer without consciously remembering the past learning process. • One subsystem of implicit memory is known as procedural memory. This type of memory is a memory for skills. For example, when you first learned how to drive a car, there were many steps involved and you consciously followed each of those steps. However, after you have been driving for awhile, you start the car and drive without thinking through all the steps involved.

44. Implicit Memories • Procedural Memories = Skills • Conditioned Memories • Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories

45. Implicit Memory • Another subsystem of implicit memory is called classical conditioning. This type of memory involves the automatic association between stimuli. • The third subsystem is priming. Priming involves taking information that a person has already learned out of storage in order to learn new information. By using priming, the person is able to learn this new information faster and better.

46. Priming To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

47. How Memory Is Organized • We can remember information or facts better when we organize them hierarchically. By this we mean that we store the information from general to specific. • New information can be stored in semantic networks, meaning that information is incorporated into the correct region of memory. There are semantic networks for all sorts of common information. • Aschemais a preexisting mental concept which helps us organize and interpret new information. Schemas help us to reconstruct inexact long-term memories by filling in the gaps between fragments. Schemas have scripts, which help us figure out what is happening around us, and which help to organize our storage of memories about events.

48. How Memory Is Organized • Connectionism, or parallel-distributed processing (PDP), is based on the theory that memories are stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons. Several of these neuronal connections may work together to form one memory. • Karl Lashley(1950) discovered that memories are not stored in one specific area of the brain, but throughout various parts of the brain.

49. Neurons and Memory • Researchers today believe that memories are located in specific sets or circuits of neurons (Ardiel & Rankin, 2010; Clark & Squire, 2010). Larry Squire (1994, 2000, 2007) says that most memories are probably clustered in groups of about one thousand neurons. • Researchers have also discovered that when brain chemicals such as neurotransmitters are released in sea slugs, they trigger memories. Scientists theorize that this process may occur the same way in humans.

50. Brain Structures and Memory Functions • The hippocampus, the temporal lobesin the cerebral cortex, and other parts of the limbic system are all involved in explicit memories. • The left frontal lobe is more active in encoding, while the right frontal lobe is more active in retrieval. Older adults begin to use the left frontal lobe in retrieval as well, which may compensate for memory problems. • The amygdalaplays a role in emotional memories. • Thecerebellumis involved in the implicit memories required to perform various skills.