Democracy on the African Continent: Colonialism, Tribalism and the Future

1. Democracy on the African Continent: Colonialism, Tribalism and the Future Country Focus: Nigeria

2. Democracy • Is democracy an instrument? A tool for achieving value based goals? • Human rights • Justice • Is democracy dependent on the emergence of stable, diversified economies? • What is the role of an independent civil society?

3. Status – Liberal Democracy Commitment: • Benin • Botswana • Mali • Madagascar • Mauritius • Namibia • South Africa

4. Country Status: Economic Reform, Multi-party Elections • Burkina Faso • Kenya • Malawi • Mozambique • Senegal • Tanzania • Uganda • Zambia

5. Country Status: Development without Democracy • Burundi • Eritrea • Gabon • Gambia • Niger • Ethiopia • Rwanda

6. Country Status: Collapse • Angola • Cameroon • Chad • Congo • Nigeria** • Sierra Leone • Somalia • Sudan

7. Economic & Political Liberalization • Is democratization the only solution to systemic political crisis? • Are there economic alternatives beyond liberal market economies? • Does democracy spring from economic and social pluralism? • For some this is indeed the true explanation for the global spread of democracy. • How would these scholars address China? • Clearly there is a connection but it is not necessarily causal (Thus, liberal economies may be a necessary condition of democratization but they are clearly NOT sufficient conditions).

8. Western models applied to Africa? • Western policymakers handicapped by their fundamental misunderstanding of African nations, the conflicts, the needs, wants, demands of citizens. • Equivalent to statement “Ronald Reagan’s foreign policy caused the collapse of the Soviet Union”. • Democratic formation is not linear.

9. History and Political Culture: Decolonization and Nationhood • “The scramble of Africa” • Decolonization and the creation of national borders for independence occurred quickly and according to the convenience of colonial powers. • Result is a continent-wide structure of countries whose citizens have little reason to identify with one another (nationhood) • Cultural, economic, environmental, realities were ignored • Today extremely diverse groups of people must co-habit as “citizens” • Significant barrier to growth of a common identity (nation)…no “glue”, no common culture.

10. Civil Society in Africa? • The autonomous sphere between the state and the family or individual. This sphere limits governmental action (stops the entropy). • Artificial national borders enhance cultural and linguistic disunity…making it virtually impossible for an “autonomous sphere” to emerge. • Some local level groups: age, ethnicity, religion, self-help, local issue groups. • No systematic integration of these groups into the economy (subsistence production continues).

11. Explanation for absence of civil society? • Predatory state in post-colonial era has pushed people out of a broader society. • Tribalism, ethnicity, kinship enhanced. • These structures are so discrete that they cannot produce a broad base of support for anything => no chance for democracy. • Modern tribalism the dominant organizational form in Africa today. • Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda, Chad, Burundi • Chronic violence based in tribalism, ethnicity, kinship

12. Accountability via communication. Education, citizen identification of public versus private. Pro-modernization values. Africans dispersed in rural communities. Absence of education, no systematic national identification. Anti-modernization values (subsistence). Requirements of Democracy – Barriers in Africa Religion provides social/economic foundation of traditional societies. Differences of faith are not reconcilable. This supercedes government action and reinforces ethnic/regional cleavages. Extreme poverty keeps other citizens from participation in the political system.

13. Economic re-adjustment? • IMF programs have forced structural adjustment in many African nations. • In many cases programs have enjoyed some success but still citizens remain poor, and large numbers of citizens are poorer than before. • Ex: Tanzania 50% of population at $1/day. • Conclusion: economic development before democratization? • Sources of Africa’s problems? Itself, international community, international trade system (complexity).

14. Africa and the World • Increasingly marginalized in global economy. • Debt increases with few options for reduction. • International community pushing democracy but not promoting rational economic development, i.e, 50% of a national population cannot stay in poverty if democracy is to stabilize and expand. • Equality of opportunity non-existent. • Personal rule emerged post-independence, lacks institutional foundation.

15. Nigeria • Population 120 million • Independence 1960 • Democratic transition: 1979, 1989, 1995, 1999 • President: Olusegun Obasanjo • Religion: 50% Muslim, 40% Christian, 10% indigenous beliefs • Primary export: oil

16. Political Culture: Geography and Ethnicity • 250 ethnic groups • Size of the groups varies • Groups are geographically concentrated • Hausa-Fulani (north) • Igbo (southeast) • Yoruba (southwest)

17. Political Culture: History • 1800s dominated by various foreign groups • Goal of occupying groups: extraction of resources and exploitation of people for cheap labor (slave trade) • 1807-1850 slave trade eliminated; Trade in goods continued • 1914-1960 British colony • Colonial government inappropriate to Nigerian political situation, i.e., tribal divisions • More authoritarian approach on the part of British authorities • One set of rules for the British • Second set of rules for the Nigerians • Consequence is conflicting message about democracy • Democratic institutions • Authoritarian political culture

18. Religion • Religion reflects Muslim/Christian split from north to south • Hausa-Fulani • Islam • Militaristic • Northern region politically dominant • Yoruba • Christian (some Muslims or indigenous belief systems) • Southwest region, part of the commercially dominant south • Igbo • Southeast region, part of the commercially dominant south • Christian

19. Nigerian Nationalism • Return of freed slaves • World war II veterans • Educated returnees • Civil violence experiences • Coups prior to Biafran War • Biafran War coalition • Continued national recruitment by military • Domination of officer corps by elites

20. Effects of Fragmentation • Nigerians oriented toward political involvement are identified by • Exposure to formal education • Involvement in modern economy (participant versus subject or parochial orientations) • Pattern of involvement - clientelism • Limited legitimacy of opposition • High efficacy but low trust • Political corruption problematic • Two dominant democratic orientations: • Freedom and political accountability

21. Political Socialization • Agents of socialization • Family, nuclear or extended (polygamous in the north) • Schools, valued as necessary to advancement (community builders) • Language, linguistic pluralism • Newspapers, primary source of political information but limited by illiteracy • Mass media and propaganda – radio critical source • The state – launches propaganda • Urbanization • Religion

22. Political Recruitment • Politicization of the military • Recruitment of officers from university graduates • Recruitment according to ethnic group • Transfer of officer corps after Biafran war • 1966 independence movement of oil rich eastern region • Leadership of military and professed belief in civilian rule • Backing by administrative class • Exclusion of strangers

23. Nigeria and the Niger River Valley