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Chapter 6 MEMORY

Chapter 6 MEMORY. 《 普通心理学 》 专业课. 永远的战士. 49 岁的健康、英俊的中年人 谈吐用现在时而非过去时 认为自己 19 岁，处于 1945 年 顺向性遗忘症（ anterograde amnesia ） 对大脑受损之后的事件失去记忆 倒退性遗忘症（ retrograde amnesia ）. Memory. 记忆是人脑对过去经验的保持和提取. Outlines. Memory and its Biological Basis Memory and Information Processing

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Chapter 6 MEMORY

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  1. Chapter 6 MEMORY 《普通心理学》专业课

  2. 永远的战士 • 49岁的健康、英俊的中年人 • 谈吐用现在时而非过去时 • 认为自己19岁，处于1945年 • 顺向性遗忘症（anterograde amnesia） • 对大脑受损之后的事件失去记忆 • 倒退性遗忘症（retrograde amnesia）

  3. Memory • 记忆是人脑对过去经验的保持和提取

  4. Outlines • Memory and its Biological Basis • Memory and Information Processing • Memory as a Constructive and Reconstructive Process • Retrieval and Forgetting • How to Improving Memory? • Challenges to the Information-Processing Model

  5. 1 The Nature of Memory

  6. 1.1 Biological Basis • 定位说 • 非定位说(脑均势说） • 突触生长说 • 记忆分子说（DNA/RNA） • 记忆的电生理基础（反响回路） • 脑内代谢物与记忆

  7. 1.2 Memory and Information Processing • Sensory registers • 不到1秒 • Short-term memory(STM)/Working memory • 20－30秒 • Long-term memory(LTM) • 可毕生不忘

  8. 记忆的信息加工模型 行为反应 维持复述 感觉 登记 精细复述 STM LTM 刺激 注意 提取 遗忘? 遗忘 遗忘

  9. Working Memory • STM,is also called working memory, it functions like a mental sketch pad on which people make mental notes, solve problems, and hold relevant information in consciousness for a brief period. • Working memory can also exist in LTM.

  10. 1.3 Three changes of memory models • Modules, a set of memory systems. • Remembering without involving retrieval into consciousness. • Not all information follows the path of the model, further, the model is not unidirectional.

  11. 2 Sensory Registration

  12. 2.1 The Evidence • George Sperlling(1960) • Tachistoscope: flashing for 15-500ms. • Whole report/Partial report • Less than 4 of the 12 letters(33%)<==>roughly 3 out of the 4 items(75%) • Partial report design: focusing attention on one part of the image while it was still in iconic storage .

  13. Partial Report 音调指示 反应 视觉呈现 M Q T Z 高音 R F G A 中音 N S L C 低音 N, S, L, C

  14. 2.2 Representation • Mental representation 心理表征 • a mental model of a stimulus or category of stimuli. • Sensory Representation • Verbal Representations

  15. 表象

  16. Sensory Representation • Iconic storage • For a brief period after an image disappears from vision, people retain a mental image of what they have seen (Foley & Mulhern,1991; Neisser, 1967, 1976) • The duration of icons varies from approximately half a second to two seconds, depending on the individual, the content of the image, and the circumstances. • Presenting another image or even a flash of light directly after the first image disappears erases the original icon. • Echoic storage • Two types of echoic memory systems: speech/nonspeech sounds

  17. Sensory Representation • Mental manipulation(Kosslyn, 1983; Tye, 1991). • Cooper & Shepard(1973): rotating of a capital R • PET scan study • Eidetic imagery/photographic memory

  18. Verbal Representation • Multiple sensory and verbal representations==>parallel processing of information by modules in the brain

  19. 3 Short-Term Memory • Characteristics of STM • Controlling Information in STM

  20. 3.1 Characteristics of STM • Active • workspace (Peterson & Peterson, 1959) • Rapidly accessed • Preserved in the sequence presented • Limited in capacity • Miller(1956): 5-9 items • Hermann Ebbinghaus(1885): • Seven-item limit • nonsense syllables (pir, vup) • AVL, acoustic/verbal/linguistic • Conrad(1964): V---B, U

  21. 3.2 Controlling Information in STM • Rehearsal • Maintenance Rehearsal: repeating the information again and again to prevent it from fading. • Elaborative rehearsal: Thinking about, or elaborating, the information meaning while rehearsing. ==>transferring to LTM. • Chunking

  22. Miller(1956)：神奇的7+-2 DJIBMNYSEWSJSEC • 因人、因事而异

  23. Chunking DJIBMNYSEWSJSEC DJ IBM NYSE WSJ SEC dj: Dow-jones ibm: International Business Machines nyse: New York Stock Exchange wsj: Wall Street Journal sec: Securities and Exchange Commission//Samsung Electronic Co.

  24. 4 Long-Term Memory • The Serial Position Effect • Long-Term Memory Systems • Encoding and LTM • How Information Is Stored in LTM • Hierarchical Organization of LTM

  25. 4.1 The Serial Position Effect • Free recall tasks recalling as many as possible • Serial position effect • Ss were more likely to remember the earlier and later items on the list than the words in the middle (Atkinson & Schiffrin,1968). • Primacy effect/Recency effect • Primacy---rehearsal: STM-->LTM • Recency---STM

  26. 4.2 LTM system • Explicit Memory • Implicit Memory

  27. Explicit Memory • Also called declarative memory, refers to knowledge that can be consciously brought to mind and declared. • Semantic memory • Episodic memory(Tulving, 1972, 1983) • Personal Event/ Public Event (Weaver, 1994) • Flashbulb memory

  28. Implicit Memory • Cannot be brought to mind consciously but is expressed in behavior (Roediger, 1990) • Procedural memory • Priming effects • Results of Conditioning

  29. LTM System LTM Implicit Memory Explicit Memory Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Procedural Memory Priming Effects Results of Conditioning

  30. Priming Effects • Definition • 先前接触的相同或类似的信息，促进了新信息的加工 • Bowers & Schacter(1990)：24词的词表 • BEASON CHECK PENNY • READY CHEESE PENGUIN 词干补词任务（12个老词干，63个新词干） 词表用词量：控制组12％，实验组30％。

  31. 4.3 Encoding and LTM • Rehearsal and Levels of Processing • Multiple Representations and Representational Modes • Mnemonic Devices

  32. Rehearsal and Levels of Processing Craik & Lockhart (1972) Craik & Tulving(1975) • Structural Level (physical characteristics of the stimulus) • Phonemic Level (simple characteristics of the language ) • Semantic Level (meaning of the stimulus)

  33. Representational Modes • Paivio(1975) :Dual-code hypothesis • 斑马－台灯，图片和文字，反应时 • 大多记忆内容以意义编码为主 • Bower(1972) • 对偶学习 • 视觉表征与否（建立意义） • 记忆效果相差1.5倍

  34. 表象

  35. 4.4 How Information Is Stored In LTM • Networks of Association • Node • Hierarchical Network Model • Quillian(1968); Collins & Quillian(1969) • Spreading Activation • Collins & Loftus (1975) • Starting of Activation: perception & thought • Nisbett & Wilson (1977) • Ocean-Moon Tide

  36. 5 Memory as a Constructive & Reconstructive Process • Flashbulb memories • Schemas and the Construction of Memory • Schemas in Eyewitness Testimony

  37. Schemas and the Construction of Memory • Schema • 特定情境或方面的有关知识。它组织信息并且指导获得新的信息。 • Schemas affect the way people remember • Influencing coding • 不同人的视角不同 • Influencing reconstruct data in memory • Schemas and Retrieval • Default values//Slots • Frederic Bartlett(1932)

  38. Memory and Eyewitness Testimony • Loftus, Elizabeth F(1975, 1979) • Leading questions and eyewitness report • Presupposition • How fast(stop sign)? Did you see a stop sign? • “11月7日你在干什么？”

  39. 6 Retrieval and Forgetting • Recall/Recognition • Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

  40. Encoding Specificity Principle • Tulving & Thompson(1973) • 编码和随后提取的方式匹配，影响记忆提取 • Retrieval cues • Contexts • Godden & Baddeley(1975): Divers • State-dependent memory • Physical or emotional state can also provide retrieval cues

  41. Forgetting • Ebbinghaus(1885) • forgetting curve • Why do people forget? • Decay Theory • Interference Theory • proactive/retroactive interference • Motivated forgetting(repression) • Childhood Amnesia

  42. 7 How to Improving memory? • Attention • Elaboration and Encoding • Chunking and Memory Span • Imagery and Encoding • method of loci • peg methods (mental pegs such as numbers) • Context and Retrieval Preacting • SQ3R • survey, question, read, recite, and review

  43. Challenges to the Information-Processing Model • Computers do not feel, wish, or desire. • The role of consciousness • The external validity of experimental study • The role of cultural context of memory

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