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2. Housekeeping Items • Outlines due today. • Our time slot does not permit a field trip, but if you ever get a chance to go to Wildwood near Yellowpoint, do so. It’s a ‘woodlot’ (i.e. forest ecosystem) that has been sustainably managed for almost eighty years. • IT says that, on Friday, between 10:00 and 11:30 p.m., they expect erratic or no access to the following: VIU websites , VPN, D2L Web sites, shared drives, and other resources.

3. Housekeeping Items • “Great Barrier Reef Sediment Dump Approved For One Of World's Most Fragile Ecosystems” • -- SYDNEY (AP) — The federal government in December approved the expansion of the Abbot Point coal port in northern Queensland, which requires a massive dredging operation to make way for ships entering and exiting the port. About 3 million cubic meters (106 million cubic feet) of dredged mud and coal dust will be dumped within the marine park under the plan, despite concerns by environmentalists that this will further damage an already challenged natural wonder.

4. Topics This Week – Forestry and Mining: Key Industries in B.C. • How many people have family members who or have been involved in these industries, or who have themselves been involved? • Why should we care about them in a course on environmental geography? • What kinds of potential ecological impacts do they have? • How are they linked into globalization? • Who are the primary markets for wood products and minerals, including fossil fuels?

5. Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to • Describe the basic functional processes of trees and their role in biogeochemical cycling • Summarize the principal types of forest biomes, especially those indigenous to Canada • Describe the ecological roles and economic contributions of forests • Trace the history and scale of forest loss and identify the current drivers of deforestation • Outline the major methods of harvesting timber • Explain the fundamentals of forest management, and identify forest management agencies in Canada and internationally

6. Central Case:Battling over the last big trees at Clayoquot Sound • 1993: The largest act of civil disobedience in Canadian history • 12 000 Protestors blocked loggers from cutting ancient trees in Clayoquot Sound on Vancouver Island, British Columbia (anyone you know involved?), and over 800 were arrested • Old-growth forests = complex primary forests in which the trees are at least 150 years old • Jobs depended on the timber industry • Iisaak, meaning “respect”, became a guiding principle for forestry in the area • Variable retention harvesting = logging selectively to retain a certain percentage and characteristics of the forest ecosystem

8. The Forest and the Trees 10-8

9. The Forest and the Trees Forests cover about 31% of Earth’s land surface (and used to cover much more, though a few areas are reverting back) Provide habitat, maintain soil, air, and water quality, and play key roles in biogeochemical cycles

10. Trees have several basic requirements • For photosynthesis to occur • An amenable temperature (appropriate to the species) • Air (with CO2) • Light • Proper soil (with certain nutrients) • Water (some tree species need more than others) 10-10

11. Trees have several basic requirements (cont’d) • Macronutrients – required in large amounts • Micronutrients – required in small amounts • Transpiration – water loss from leaf surface, cools the plant as well as assisting in the movement of nutrients • Water drawn up through xylem by adhesion and cohesion (water being sucked out of the leaf pores by wind, thus creating a vacuum that enables more water to flow up the trunk channels) • Useful to plant trees in close proximity to crops to make water more accessible to crops 10-11

12. There are three major groups of forest biomes Boreal forest High-latitude forest Cold, dry climates with short growing seasons Temperate forest Mid-latitude forest (eastern forests or west-coast rainforests) Seasonal climate (winter season vs. summer growing season) Tropical forest Equatorial-latitude forest Wet, tropical climate

14. Forests grade into open wooded lands Drylands: Shrublands = wooded areas covered by shrubs and occasional taller trees (e.g. tundra) Savannah = open area fominated by grasses with widely scattered trees Grasslands = lands dominated by grasses and non-woody vegetation

15. Canada is a steward for much of the world’s forest Canada has the highest amount of forested land per capita in the world More than 50% of Canada’s primary forest remains more or less intact

16. Canada’s forests are varied 402 million hectares of forested and other wooded land is 25% of the world’s natural forest. For a fuller description, see http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/forest-regions. Forests of the north: Boreal forest (taiga) is the largest forested region of Canada Every province except New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island Forests of the west: Forest regions: Subalpine, montane, coast, Columbia Forests of the east: Forest regions: Deciduous (Carolinian), Great-Lakes-St. Lawrence (mixed deciduous & evergreen), Acadian (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England/Acadian_forests).

17. Forests are ecologically valuable One of the richest ecosystems for biodiversity Structural complexity houses great biodiversity Some animals adapted for living in canopy, others specialize on the subcanopies Shrubs and groundcover plants of the understory are home to still more organisms Fallen leaves and branches called litter, house still others Forest edge can be quite different from habitat in the forest core.

18. Different storeys (layers) in the forest Canopy – upper level of leaves, woodland area has a more open canopy

19. Trees provide ecosystem services of value to people A forest provides many ecosystem services Stabilizes soil and prevents erosion Slows runoff, lessens flooding, purifies water Stores carbon, releases oxygen, moderates climate Regions that have lost their forest cover – where are they, and what are they subject to? - - -

20. Harvesting Forest Products 10-20

21. Forest products are economically valued Benefits: fuel, shelter, transportation (ships), paper Helped society achieve a high standard of living Softwood = timber harvested from coniferous trees Hardwood = timber harvested from deciduous trees NTFPs = non-timber forest products such as medicinal, herbal, decorative and edible products (e.g. edible plants, traditional First Nations plants for healing and eating, mushrooms, salal, etc.)

22. Timber is harvested by several methods • Clearcutting method – all trees in an area are cut, leaving only stumps • Most cost-efficient • Greatest impacts on forest ecosystems • Mimics natural disturbances such as fires • Enhances soil erosion and run-off 10-22

23. Timber is harvested by several methods (cont’d)

24. Timber is harvested by several methods (cont’d) • Selection systems = only select trees are cut • Single tree selection = widely spaced trees are cut • Group tree selection = small patches of trees are cut • All methods disturb habitat, but some more than others • Change forest structure and composition • Increase erosion, siltation, runoff, flooding, landslides

25. Plantation forestry has grownin North America • Reforestation = planting of trees after logging • Afforestation = planting of trees where forested cover has not existed for some time (e.g. Oak Ridges Moraine on Ontario in ‘30s and ‘40s) • Even-aged trees = all trees are the same age • Maximum sustainable yield = cutting trees shortly after they have gone through their fastest stage of growth, and trees often grow most quickly at intermediate ages

26. Land Conversion and Deforestation 10-26

27. Land conversion and Deforestation Deforestation = the clearing and loss of forests People have cleared forests for millennia Clearing of land for farming one of the first significant human environmental impacts Alters landscapes and ecosystems (and hence habitat)

28. The growth of Canada and the U.S. were fueled by land clearing and logging Deforestation propelled growth throughout North America Cleared for farming Then wood used to fuel furnaces of industry Principle cause of deforestation in Canada was agriculture; now it’s logging and mining.

29. Agriculture is the major cause of conversion of forests and grasslands • Agriculture covers more of the planet’s surface than forest • Principal driver of land conversion today – examples? • Swidden agriculture = small area of forest cleared and crops planted • Sustains only one or two seasons of planting • Soil depleted quickly • 7 years required to replenish soil in original clearings to support crops or forests • is it sustainable? Seems to be a minor culprit

30. Livestock graze one-fourth of Earth’s land surface • Most cattle today raised in feedlots, but have traditionally been raised by grazing on open rangelands • Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and at low intensity • Poorly managed grazing impacts oil and grassland ecosystems • Ranchers and environmentalists have joined to preserve ranchland against development and urban sprawl • However, some tropical rainforest is being converted to rangeland or single-crop plantations

31. Bad practices and other pressures have led to deforestation • Deforestation has altered the landscapes and ecosystems of much or our planet • Forest can be harvested sustainably but it hasn’t always happened • Impacts are greatest in tropical areas and in dryland regions • Deforestation also adds carbon dioxide to atmosphere because forests are carbon sinks • Fastest rates of deforestation are in tropical rainforests of Latin America, Africa, and to some degree Asia, affecting species such as orangutans 10-31

32. Oil Sands Before and After…

33. Deforestation is proceeding rapidly in many developing nations • Uncut primary tropical forests still remain in many developing countries • Advanced technology has allowed the exploitation of resources faster than in the past • Often these countries impose few or no restrictions on logging • Often timber is extracted by foreign corporations FIGURE 10.10

34. Logging here or there? weighingtheissues Imagine you are an environmental activist protesting a logging operation that is cutting old-growth trees near your hometown. If the protest is successful, the company will move to a developing country and cut its primary forest instead. • Would you still protest the logging in your hometown? • Would you pursue any other approaches?

35. Forest Management Principles 10-35

36. Forest Management Principles Forestry (silviculture) = a professional field of managing forests by balancing forests as ecosystems and as sources of wood products Harvesting = the removal of material from the resource Should not occur at a rate that exceeds the capability of the resource to replenish or regenerate itself (‘sustained yield’ – this is the theory, not necessarily the practice)

37. Public forests in Canada are managed for many purposes Canadian Forest Service preserves timber on federal Crown lands Provincial crown land used for timber and non-timber forest products (mainly timber) Multiple use = policy where forests were to be managed for recreation, wildlife habitat, mineral extraction, and various other uses wooded areas covered by shrubs and occasional taller trees (e.g. tundra)

38. Public forests in Canada are managed for many purposes (cont’d) National Forest Strategy for 2003-2008 (couldn’t find a reference to since 2005; may have been decentralized to provinces) Ecosystem-based management Better environmental, social, and economic sustainability of forest communities through legislation and policies Recognizing rights of Aboriginal peoples Diversification of markets for forest products Better skills and knowledge of forest practitioners Engaging Canadians in sustainability through urban forests Support private woodlots for forest sustainability National forest reporting system

39. Today some managers practice ecosystem-based management, but still much disagreement about what it is Ecosystem-based management = managing the harvesting of resources to minimize impact on the ecosystems and ecological processes Carefully managing ecologically important areas Protecting some forested areas It is challenging for managers to determine how to implement this type of management Ecosystems are complex, and our understanding of how they operate is limited

40. Adaptive management evolves and improves Adaptive management = systematically testing different management approaches and aiming to improve methods based on experimentation Monitoring results and adjusting methods as needed A fusion of science and management Time-consuming and complicated A guiding principle for forest management in Canada West Arm Demonstration Forest Experiments Donna Creek Biodiversity Project Grizzly Bear Habitat Project

41. Fire is a natural phenomenon in forests • Many ecosystems depend on fire • Ecosystems dependent of fire are adversely affected by its suppression • Ground fires = the litter layer itself burns, as opposed to crown fires • Crown fires = the upper tree canopy is ignited 10-41

42. Fire policy has stirred controversy • For over 100 years, all forest fires were suppressed • But many ecosystems depend on fires • Fire suppression allows woody accumulation, which produces kindling for future fires • Housing development near forests and climate change will increase fire risk

43. Fire policy has stirred controversy (cont’d) • Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests under carefully controlled conditions • Effective • May get out of control • Impeded by public misunderstanding and political interference • Should development allowed in fire-prone areas?

44. Fire policy has stirred controversy (cont’d) • Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance • Seems logical, but is really destructive • Snags (standing dead trees) provide nesting cavities for countless animals • Removing timber from recently burned areas increases erosion and soil damage • Promotes future fires

45. Sustainable forestry is gaining ground • Sustainable forestry certification = only products produced sustainably can be certified • International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) have different standards • Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably produced timber • Companies such as Home Depot sell sustainable wood as a result of environmental campaigns • Encourages better logging practices

46. Conclusion • Forests and other terrestrial biomes provide crucial ecosystem services that have economic value as well • Resources must be managed sustainably to avoid overexploitation and overharvesting • There are federal and regional agencies to oversee and manage publicly held land and natural resources • Resource management policies consider sustained yield, multiple use, timber production, recreation, wildlife habitat, and ecosystem integrity • Public support resulted in parks, wilderness areas and other reserves

47. QUESTION: Review If an area is managed for Maximum Sustained Yield, and the area can support 100 organisms, how many organisms will be allowed to remain in the area? a) 100 b) 75 c) 50 d) 25

48. QUESTION: Review Which of the following is not part of the ecological value of forests? a) Erosion prevention b) Decreased flooding c) Carbon storage d) Climate moderation e) All of the above are values of forests

49. QUESTION: Review Which of the following statement regarding forest management is false? a) Deforestation in Canada has occurred for centuries b) Timber companies move on after an area is deforested c) Tropical countries have lost the majority of forests so timber companies won’t be going there d) Governments in developing countries help logging companies at the expense of native people

50. QUESTION: Review Which agency preserves timber on Crown lands? a) Canadian Wildlife Service b) Canadian Forest Service c) Bureau of Land Management d) Ministry of Forests and Range