The Media

1. The Media Wilson Chapter 10 Klein Oak High School

2. Journalism in Political History (overview) • Party Press • Popular Press • Magazines of Opinion • Electronic Journalism • Internet

3. The Party Press • Parties created, subsidized, and controlled various newspapers • Possible because circulation small, subscriptions expensive • Newspapers circulated among political and commercial elites • Government often subsidized the president’s party press

4. The Popular Press 1 • Changes in society and technology made possible self-supporting, mass readership daily newspapers • High-speed press • Telegraph gave local papers greater access to news • Associated Press, 1848; objective reporting and systematic distribution of information • Urbanization concentrated population to support paper, advertisers • Government Printing Office established 1860—end of most printing contracts to Washington newspapers

5. The Popular Press 2 • Mass-readership newspapers were partisan, reflecting the views of their publishers and editors • Joseph Pulitzer • William Randolph Hearst (Spanish – American War) • Established the feasibility of a press independent of government, demonstrating that there was profit to be made in criticizing government policies

6. Magazines of Opinion 1 • Middle class favors new, progressive periodicals • Nation, Atlantic, Harper’s in 1850s and 1860s • McClure’s, Scribner’s, Cosmopolitan later • Individual writers gain national followings through investigative reporting • Number of competing newspapers declines, reducing the need for sensationalism to sell papers • Readers were also becoming more educated and sophisticated • Today, national magazines focused on politics account for a small and declining fraction of magazines

7. Electronic Journalism 1 • Radio arrives in 1920s, television in the late 1940s • Politicians could address voters directly but people could easily ignore them and their messages • Fewer politicians could be covered by these media than by newspapers • President routinely covered • Others must be controversial or have a national reputation or buy time • Shorter sound bites on the nightly news, though, make it more difficult for candidates and officeholders to convey theirmessage

8. Electronic Journalism 2 • Politicians now have more sources -- cable, early-morning news, news magazine shows – and many of these new sources feature lengthy interviews • Consequences of two changes remain unknown: • Recent access of politicians to electronic media for campaigns, elections, governing • Narrowcasting, where a segmented audience is targeted by TV and radio stations • Politicians continue to seek the media spotlight even after they are elected

9. The Internet • A free market in political news • Facilitates communication between voters and political activists

10. Degree of Competition 1 • Newspapers • Number of daily newspapers has not significantly declined • Number of cities with multiple papers has declined • Sixty percent of cities had competing newspapers in 1900 • Four percent in 1972 • Subscription rates have fallen, however, as most people get their news from television

11. Degree of Competition 2 • Radio and television are intensely competitive and becoming more so • U.S. press is composed mostly of locally owned and managed enterprises, unlike Europe • Oriented to local market • FCC regulations dispersed ownership

12. The National Media 1 • Existence somewhat offsets local orientation • Consists of: • Wire services (AP, UPI) • National magazines • Television network evening news broadcasts • Fox News, CNN, MSNBC • Newspapers with national readerships • New York Times • Washington Post

13. The National Media 2 • Significance of a national press: • Washington officials follow it closely • National reporters and editors are distinctive from the local press • Better paid • From more prestigious universities • More liberal outlook • Do investigative or interpretive stories

14. The National Media 3 • Roles played by the national press: • Gatekeeper: influences what subjects become national political issues, for how long • Scorekeeper: track political reputations and candidacies • Elections are covered like horse races rather than as choices among policy alternatives • Media momentum during the presidential primary season is • crucial • Watchdog: investigate personalities and expose scandals

15. Rules Governing the Media (overview) • Newspapers versus electronic media • Confidentiality of sources • Regulating broadcasting • Campaigning

16. Newspaper vs. Electronic Media • Newspapers are almost entirely free from government regulation • Prosecutions only after the fact—no prior restraint • After publication, sue only for libel, obscenity, incitement to illegal act • Each of these conditions has been defined narrowly by the courts, to enhance the freedom of the press • Radio and television are licensed and regulated • “public airwaves”

17. Confidentiality of Sources • Reporters want right to keep sources confidential • Most states and federal government disagree • Supreme Court allows the government to compel reporters to divulge information in court if it bears on a crime

18. Regulating Broadcasting 1 • FCC licensing • Seven years for radio license renewal • Five years for television license renewal • Stations must serve “community needs”

19. Regulating Broadcasting 2 • Recent movement to deregulate • License renewal by postcard • No hearing unless opposed • Relaxation of some rule enforcement • Radio has been the most deregulated, regarding ownership and content

20. Regulating Broadcasting 3 • Other radio and television regulations • Equal-time rule • Right-of-reply rule • Political-editorializing rule • Fairness doctrine was abolished in 1987; still voluntarily followed by many broadcasters

21. Campaigning 1 • Equal-time rule applies • Equal access for all candidates • Rates no higher than the cheapest commercial rate • Debates formerly had to include all candidates • Therefore, Reagan-Carter debate had to be sponsored by LWV • Now stations and networks can sponsor debates limited to major candidates

22. Campaigning 2 • Not all candidates use TV because its efficiency in reaching voters varies • Works well only when the market and the district overlap • More Senate than House candidates buy television time

23. Studies: Effect of Media on Politics • Generally inconclusive, because of citizens’ . . . • Selective attention • Mental tune-out • Products can be sold more easily than candidates • Local newspapers often endorse Republican presidential candidates

24. Major Effect of Media on Politics 1 • on how politics is conducted, • candidates perceived, • policy formulated

25. Major Effect of Media on Politics 2 • National party conventions are scheduled to accommodate television • Candidates win party nomination via media exposure • Issues benefiting from media attention • Environment • Consumer issues

26. Major Effect of Media on Politics 3 • Issues that are important to citizens are similar to those in media • TV influences the political agenda • But people are less likely to take media cues on matters that affect them personally • Newspaper readers see bigger contrasts between candidates than do TV viewers • TV news affects popularity of presidents; commentaries have short run impact

27. Government and News – Prominence of the President • Theodore Roosevelt: systematic cultivation of the press became an art form • Franklin Roosevelt: press secretary cultivated, managed, informed the press • Press secretary today: large staff, performing many functions focused on White House press corps

28. Government and News – Coverage of Congress • Never equal to that of president; members resentful • House quite restrictive in the past • No cameras on the floor until 1978 • Gavel-to-gavel coverage of proceedings since 1979 (C-SPAN) • Senate more open • Hearings since Kefauver (1950) have frequently been broadcast • TV coverage of sessions initiated by C-SPAN in 1986

29. Interpreting Political News (overview) • Credibility and bias in the media • Are news stories slanted? • Why are there so many news leaks? • Sensationalism in the media • Government constraints on journalists

30. Credibility and Bias in the Media • Most people believe the media, especially television where they get most news • But the percentage increasing of those who think the media is biased • Press itself thinks it is unbiased • Liberal bias of journalists, especially national media

31. Are News Stories Slanted? 1 • Various factors influence how stories are written • Deadlines • Audience attraction • Fairness, truth imposed by professional norms • Need sources with different views

32. Are News Stories Slanted? 2 • Type of story also influences whether a reporter’s or editor’s opinion will affect coverage • Routine stories: public events, regularly covered • Reported similarly by all media; opinions of journalists have least effect • Can be misreported: Tet offensive • Feature stories: public but not routinely covered so requires reporter initiative • Selection involves perception of what is important • Liberal and conservative papers do different stories • Increasing in number; reflect views of press more than experts or public – “spin” • Examples: nuclear power and busing stories

33. Are News Stories Slanted? 3 • Insider stories: investigative reporting or leaks • Involves selection of facts, so ideology of reporter or editor may surface • Motive of person who leaks the story is always a question

34. Why are there So Many Leaks? 1 • Constitution: separation of powers • Power is decentralized • Branches of government compete and press is a weapon in the competition • Not illegal to print most secrets • Adversarial press since Vietnam, Watergate, Iran-contra • Press and politicians distrust each other • A more suspicious and adversarial press • Competition for awards, etc. among journalists

35. Why are there So Many Leaks? 2 • Cynicism created era of attack journalism • Most people do not like this kind of news • Media cynicism about government mirrors public’s increasing cynicism about media • People believe the media slant their coverage, have too much influence, and abuse their constitutional protections • Also, public confidence in big business is down, and now media are big business • Adversarial media, meanwhile, has made negative campaign • advertising more socially acceptable

36. Sensationalism in the Media • Intense competition among media outlets means that each has a small share of the audience • Sensationalism draws an audience and is cheaper than investigative reporting • Reporters, meanwhile, may not be checking sources carefully because there is such competition for stories

37. Government Constraints on Journalists • Reporters must strike a balance between . . . • Expressing views, which may alienate sources • Retaining sources, and becoming their mouthpiece • Abundance of congressional staffers makes it easier because sources are more numerous • Governmental tools to fight back • Numerous press officers in legislative and executive branches • Press releases—canned news • Leaks and background stories to favorite reporters • Bypass national press to local • Presidential rewards and punishments for reporters based on their stories

38. The End!