Consider these questions:

1. Consider these questions: • Why does Rachels focus on cultural relativism, subjectivism, and religious ethics towards the beginning of The Elements of Moral Philosophy? • And why did we skip these chapters?

2. A short answer: Because these are examples of “ethics-avoidance disorders” that obstruct creative, constructive, ethical thinking. • Relativism and subjectivism can sometimes lead to “a kind of ethical laziness,” which could be called “rationalizing” or “offhand self-justification” (e.g., one often hears excuses such as “That’s just what I think”). • Religious ethics can sometimes lead to dogmatism.

3. Metaethics • What is the status of moral values? Is ethics a viable intellectual enterprise? • Is the current state of moral discourse one of grave disrepair? (as suggested by Alasdair MacIntyre)

4. “Through the Moral Maze: TheChallenge of Cultural Relativism” • Thinking about the Callatians, Greeks, and Eskimos may lead to the view that there are no absolute values, or no “universal truth in ethics.” This is cultural relativism. • In short, the “Cultural Differences Argument” infers from the premise that “different cultures have different moral codes,” that “there is no objective truth in morality.” • Is this argument valid and sound?

5. Problems with Cultural Relativism Whose view do you sympathize with more, Calvin’s or Hobbes’?

6. Problems with Cultural Relativism • 1. No blame of other cultures for “wrong” or “evil” deeds. Are cultures morally infallible? • 2. No criticism of our own culture. • 3. No idea of moral progress. • 4. In a relativist society the view of the majority rules. Is this fair? • 5. Is tolerance a universal value, in which case relativism is paradoxical? • 6. Isn’t relativism paradoxical in another sense? • 7. Don’t we all instinctively believe that some things are universally right and wrong?

7. Soft Universalism • The view that all cultures have at least some values in common, even if they are buried beneath layers of different behavior patterns and systems of belief. • Such values commonly cited are not lying, not stealing, and allowing enough young of the culture to live (i.e., not killing) in order to preserve the culture. • As Rachels states: “there are some rules that all societies must embrace, because those rules are necessary for society to exist.” (23) • A common standard: “Does the practice promote or hinder the welfare of the people affected by it?”

8. Benefits of Cultural Relativism • 1. It teaches us to be cautious about “assuming that all our preferences are based on some absolute rational standard” when “they are not.” (29) • 2. It teaches us to be open-minded and to avoid dogmatism. • Pluralism (diversity of points of view) is a view related to relativism that is generally viewed more positively by philosophers.

10. What do you know about Friedrich Nietzsche?

11. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) • Some Major Works • The Birth of Tragedy (1872) • Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883-58) • Beyond Good and Evil (1886) • Twilight of the Idols (1888) • The Antichrist (1888) • Some Major Ideas • “God is Dead.” • DerÜbermensch (the “Overman”) • Master and Slave morality

12. Some Key Points • Nietzsche’s Aim: Towards a Revaluation of All Values • Philology and Perspectivism: every view is only one among many possible interpretations. • “Truth is a necessary lie.” • Dionysus: the central metaphor for Nietzsche’s affirmative philosophy

13. How do you interpret Z’s proclamation that god is dead? • No absolutes, transcendental values or absolute principles, e.g., Judeo-Christian tradition as ultimate moral authority • Emphasizes individual freedom in creation of values • “Once the sin against god was the greatest sin, but god died, and these sinners died with him.” • Forget otherworldly salvation • “…there is no devil and no hell. Your soul will be dead even before your body: fear nothing further.”

14. How do you interpret Z’s teaching of the overman? • “I teach you the overman. Man is something that must be overcome. What have you done to overcome him?” • “The overman is the meaning of the earth.” • “He is this lightning, he is this frenzy” • Man as a bridge from “beast to overman” • A “creator” • Essentially metaphorical • Refers to humanity’s capacity for achieving a self-transformation of itself

15. Nietzsche, The Natural History of Morals in Beyond Good and Evil • Project: A Theory of Types of Morality • Against moralists, such as Kant: ”moral systems are only a sign-language of emotions” • Moral systems are against Nature and Reason: they constrain freedom and narrow perspectives

16. Moral values originate in the ruling caste Good and Bad Good=noble, one who arouses fear, necessary to have enemies Duty to equals, faith in oneself, hard-hearted, no sympathy, pride Moral values originate in those who are ruled Good and Evil Evil: one who arouses fear Sympathy, kindness, warm-hearted, patience, humility Master vs. Slave Morality

17. For Self-Reflection • Who is the source of your values? Do they come from within yourself or through a reaction to others? • Do your values make you stronger or able to flourish or do they just help you cope in a cruel world?