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Infectious Diseases and Nurses

Infectious Diseases and Nurses. Historical Insights Can Guide Future Action. Kate McPhaul, PhD, MPH, RN University of Maryland Work and Health Research Center June 8, 2007 Massachusetts Nurses Association (MNA). Objectives.

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Infectious Diseases and Nurses

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  1. Infectious Diseases and Nurses Historical Insights Can Guide Future Action Kate McPhaul, PhD, MPH, RN University of Maryland Work and Health Research Center June 8, 2007 Massachusetts Nurses Association (MNA)

  2. Objectives • List two old and one new infectious disease known to be transmitted to healthcare workers today • Discuss the three classic public health interventions for control of infectious disease transmission • Contrast the occupational safety paradigm including hierarchy of controls with classic pubic health protection and critique the implications for protecting healthcare workers • Describe the elements of the blood borne pathogen standard and relate to the hierarchy of controls for protecting workers from airborne infectious diseases

  3. Historical perspectives on TB, SARS, Influenza and Healthcare Workers • Model Standard - Bloodborne Pathogen and Needlestick Safety Act • What do we do NOW to prevent nurses from contracting infectious diseases in future outbreaks?

  4. Even super heros can succumb to infectious diseases….

  5. How many infectious agents may be transmitted and/or acquired by nurses in healthcare settings?

  6. Acinetobacter Bloodborne Pathogens Burkholderia cepacia Chickenpox (Varicella) Clostridium Difficile Clostridium Sordellii Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) Ebola (Viral Hemorrhagic Fever) Gastrointestinal (GI) Infections Hepatitis A Hepatitis B Hepatitis C HIV/AIDS Influenza MRSA - Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Mumps Norovirus Parvovirus Poliovirus Pneumonia Rubella SARS S. pneumoniae (Drug resistant) Tuberculosis Varicella (Chickenpox) Viral Hemorrhagic Fever (Ebola) VISA - Vancomycin Intermediate Staphylococcus aureus VRE - Vancomycin-resistant enterococci Infectious Diseases in Healthcare According to the CDC, the following may be transmitted and/or acquired in healthcare settings

  7. Blood borne pathogen transmission to healthcare workers • In addition to Hepatitis B and C, and HIV from 1996 – 2005 there were “published case reports of 60 pathogens: 26 viruses, 18 bacterial/rickettsia, 13 parasites, and 3 yeast” known to occupationally infect HCW’s. (Tarantola, AJIC, 2006)

  8. Occupational Deaths from Infectious Diseases: Hepatitis B • 1983 – 10,000 HCW’s exposed • 5%-10% (500-1000) develop chronic infection • 15%-25% (75-200) die/year • Risk of Hep B has diminished >90% due to Hep B Vaccine • >30% HCW’s decline vaccine resulting 400 HCW’s/year becoming infected

  9. Occupational Deaths from Infectious Diseases: Hepatitis C • CDC estimates that Hepatitis C is prevalent in 1.8% of US population, same for HCW’s • 1-3% of percutaneous exposures result in Hep C infection to HCW • 3-8 HCW’s annually die from Hepatitis C (estimate based on needlestick rate)

  10. Occupational Deaths from Infectious Diseases: HIV • 138 HCW’s acquired AID’s from a percutaneous exposure • CDC methods do not collect death information • Personal friend, Meta Snyder, died from AIDS acquired via needlestick but did not meet the CDC definition

  11. Hemorrhagic fevers TB in Malawi, Ethiopia and South Africa Occupational Deaths from Infectious Diseases: Internationally

  12. The TB Debate: TB is good for Nurses

  13. Early History • Aristotle – “in approaching the consumptive one breathes [his] pernicious air, one takes the disease because there is in this air something disease – producing” Sepkowitz, 1994

  14. Tuberculosis • 1699: tuberculosis became a reportable disease in Italy • Some pathologists refuse to do mandated autopsies fearing illness • French MD Laennec dies from TB refusing to believe he could acquire it from performing autopsies

  15. Tuberculosis • 1882 study showed no HCW’s infected in a large TB Sanatorium: “TB might not even be contagious” • Clapp of Boston believed in contagion but this view was not pervasive

  16. More data shows risk of TB for HCW’s • Studies of nursing students in Europe and US show high rates of tuberculin conversation (79-100%) • Standard 1920’s pulmonary text: “There is no danger from the expired air of consumptives. For this reason a TB sanatorium is probably the safest place one can be so far as the dangers of infection is concerned.”

  17. Why was consensus delayed?Sepkowitz, 1994 • Acknowledging risk might scare women away from nursing profession • Some said increased surveillance not increased risk • Middle road view: Yes, infections are occurring but disease is rare • Living right prevents disease

  18. Reducing the risk

  19. Reducing the Risk • Mandatory chest x-rays upon admission for all patients • Effective chemotherapy and routine prophylaxis • TB rates in population declined until 1980’s

  20. Occupational Deaths from Infectious Diseases: TB • At least nine HCW’s who were also immunocompromised died from TB infection in the 80’s and 90’s. • 6-8 HCW’s have also died from TB treatment to multi-drug resistant TB

  21. Occupational Deaths from Infectious Diseases: SARS • 8098 cases • 774 deaths (9.6%) • 1707 (21%) • cases were HCW’s • 378 (57%) of cases in • healthcare were HCW’s • Number of HCW fatalities • not known!!!

  22. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) - Timeline • Mar 2003 – HCW with unexplained pneumonia in Vietnam dies • Mar – June 2003 - Toronto – 2 phase outbreak primarily driven by nosocomial infections • Mar – June – Taiwan – 2 phases: 1 in travelers, 1 in hospitals • July 2003 – WHO declares outbreak over

  23. SARS and HCW’sMcDonald, 2004 Emerging Infectious Diseases

  24. SARS in Healthcare Facilities McDonald, 2004 Emerging Infectious Diseases • Unrecognized SARS Patients • Minimal infection control practices in ER • ER = high risk • Virus concentrations highest in patients 10 days after infection when symptoms are worsening

  25. SARS in Healthcare Facilities McDonald, 2004 Emerging Infectious Diseases • Transmission appears to be • Droplet • Direct contact • Limited airborne

  26. SARS in Healthcare Facilities McDonald, 2004 Emerging Infectious Diseases • Important Considerations: • Aerosol-generating procedures • “Super spreaders” • Lack of PPE • Overwhelming hospital resources such as negative pressure ventilated rooms • SARS Tent/SARS Screening station • No rapid diagnostic test • Using “epidemiologic links”

  27. Individual liberty Protection of the public Proportionality Reciprocity Transparency Privacy Protection from undue stigmatization Duty to provide care Equity Solidarity SARS Ethical FrameworkKey Values

  28. Lawrence Mass 1918

  29. Why does health care lag behind other sectors in H&S • False perception that the industry is self-regulated (JCAHO) • Health care traditionally seen as “clean industry”, a place of health • Focus on “curative” rather than “preventive” care • Primarily a female workforce • A low unionization rate (Lipscomb & Borwegen, 2000)

  30. HCW vulnerability • Socialized to believe that care giving requires self sacrifice, even of their own health • Some hazards considered “part of the job” • HCWs become patients (often uninsured) in the course of caring for others • Issues of race, class, gender

  31. Economic Costs of Staff Injuries/Illnesses • Medical care and follow-up • Worker disability • Staff replacement • Loss of experienced workers • Cost of importing workers to replace injured US workers • Reduced productivity • Poor patient outcomes**

  32. Handwashing Vaccination Isolating infected patients Classic Public Health Interventions

  33. Health and Safety Programs: A Framework for Prevention • Management commitment and employee involvement • Worksite analysis • Hazard control • Training • Evaluation

  34. H & S Program Elements • All necessary, none sufficient • Critical for any and all hazards • Success dependent on genuine team work • Can’t be successful without management commitment • Direct care and support staff expertise are essential

  35. Hazard Control: Hierarchy of Controls • Substitution – with a less hazardous chemical or device such as antimicrobials that don’t cause asthma • Engineering Controls - modify or control the hazard at the source, such as ventilation hoods? • Administrative Controls – reduce the amount of exposure to hazard via policies and procedures • Personal Protective Equipment - gloves, respirators, protective clothing

  36. Estimated % reduction in adverse outcomes with improved staffing Buerhaus, P.I. et al Strengthening Hospital Nursing. Health Affairs 21(5), 2002

  37. How do high workload lead to poor patient outcomes? • Impaired nurse-physician (and other HCW) collaboration, • Poor nurse-patient communication, • HCW fatigue, lack of concentration • HCW burnout, depression, reduced empathy • Job dissatisfaction • HCW injury and illness • HCW disability and/or job change Carayon & Gurses (2005)

  38. What do we know about staffing and HCW injuries? • MNA study found a 9% decrease in RNs was associated with a 65% increase in injuries/illnesses (Shogren, 1996) • High workloads associated with 50-200% increase in needlestick injuries/near misses, (Clark, 2002) • Adverse work schedule and health care system changes associated with neck, shoulder, back MSD (Lipscomb, 2004).

  39. Extreme work schedules, injuries and patient care (JAMA, Sept. 06) • 84% of interns worked > than ACGME limits; 67% worked > 30 consecutive hrs. • Odds of exposure to sharps or contaminated body fluids increase 61% when interns worked > 20 consecutive hrs. compared with interns working < 12 hrs. • “24 hrs of continuous wakefulness causes impairment of cognitive performance comparable to that induced by a blood alcohol concentration of 100 mg/dl (legal intoxication in most states).”

  40. Blood borne Pathogen Risks • 2-40% risk of developing Hepatitis B • 3-10% risk of developing Hepatitis C • 560-1,120/year • 85% become chronic carriers • 0.3% risk of transmission of HIV • >1000 workers will contract Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, or HIV/year

  41. What do we know? • 300,000 + needlesticks continue to occur/year. • Needlesticks and BB infections are extremely costly. • Safety syringe have reduced incidence (> 50%) but much room for improvement. • Enforcement of Safe Needlestick Act is limited.

  42. OSHA BBP Standard (1991) • Require “universal precautions” • Required Hep B immunization • Cases went from 17,000 (1983) to 400/yr • Engineering controls (safe needles) were to be used where available • Dentists claimed (in the docket) if they were forced to where gloves, patients would not see them.

  43. Safe Needle Act of 2000 • Unanimous bipartisan support • Clarifies the need for employers to use safe needles • Requires front line worker participation in product selection committees • Requires employers to maintain a log of injuries from contaminated sharps.

  44. Airborne Infections • TB, SARS, influenza • Seasonal flu - <40% immunization among HCW • Pandemic flu preparedness • Aerosol vs droplet transmission • Respiratory protection • Type, fit testing, stockpiles

  45. What do we know? • Short staffing leads to sick staff. • Sick staff lead to sicker patients. • Current levels of staff immunization inadequate. • Current levels of available respiratory protection (N95s) inadequate for pandemic flu.

  46. History of Regulations to Prevent HCW Exposure to Airborne Hazards • Respiratory Protection Standard (1971, 1998) • Proposed TB rule (1997); withdrawn (2003) • Continuation of the Wicker Amendment (appropriations rider) • CA is enforcing the annual fit testing requirement.

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