Chelsea Summer Swick Advisors: Dr. Yoshiko Saito-Abbott Dr. Shigeko Sekine

1. Perceptions Of Death Japanese and American University Students’ Views 5 Chelsea Summer Swick Advisors: Dr. Yoshiko Saito-Abbott Dr. Shigeko Sekine

2. Outline • Significance of Study • Research Questions • Research Background • Research Method • Conclusion • Discussion • Bibliography • Acknowledgements

3. Significance of the Study • In viewing numerous Japanese movies and dramas, the ever present and thoroughly expressed aspect of death has interested me for years. The majority of Japanese film seems to involve death in some way. • Furthermore, I find Japanese religion fascinating. When speaking to Japanese students about religious beliefs, they often would claim none of their own. They would however, discuss with me which religion their family subscribes to and students themselves would participate in various religious rituals. • For these reasons and the overall importance of death in human lives, I became interested in the beliefs towards death.

4. Research Questions • How do Japanese and American university students define “death” • What, if any, religious factors affect the way in which Japanese and American university students define “death”? • How do Japanese and American university students compare to each other in their beliefs regarding spirits, ghosts, and otherwise incorporeal essences of the deceased?

5. Background Research • Religious Belief in Japan and the United States • Christianity on Death • Shinto on Death • Buddhism on Death • Funerals In Japan • Religious In Home Icons • Controversy of Definition of Death in Japan

6. Religious Belief in Japan and the United States • United States • 2008 religious identification of American adult population: Christian 75.99% (U.S. Census, 2012) • 78.4% of all American adults are Christian(Pew Forum’s U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, 2007) • Japan • 2006: 51% Shinto, 44% Buddhist, and 1% Christian. • About 5% belonged to other religious groups • Shintoism and Buddhism are not exclusive religions and most practitioners follow both faiths. (United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 2006)

7. Christianity on Death • “Then the dust will return to the earth as it was, and the spirit will return to God who gave it” (Ecclesiastes 12:7) • Early time: “the separation of an inner spiritual soul from an external physical body: the body dies, and the soul departs.” • These concepts are deep in both pagan and Jewish thought. • “Pagan writers drew upon Greek philosophy and mythology to depict death as the departure of the soul (psuche) from the body (so-ma).” (McCane, 1997)

8. Shinto on Death • “Practitioners believe that the spirits of the dead go to the mountains, above the sky, below the earth, or beyond the horizon.” • “Kami (god(s)) and other supernatural beings also dwell in these places.” • “Living beings from this world may visit those from the other worlds in border lands, which include cliffs, caves, and coastlines.” (Horton, 2012) • The Yomi, is a sort of land of the dead, known as a source of evil and pollution • The world of Yomi is undesirable and few Japanese believe in it(Bocking,1997)

9. Buddhism on Death • Death is viewed as “a step to the next life” • Goal of these lives is enlightenment, which is key to achieving nirvana • Buddhist beliefs do not view death as a pollutant • The Shinto and Buddhism religions combine together well, with Buddhism dealing with the death aspect of life (Buckley, 2002) • Buddhist philosophy has devoted great attention to death and the afterlife (Becker, 1993)

10. Funerals In Japan • Both Shinto style and Buddhist style funerals are commonplace • However, overall, far fewer funerals are conducted in the Shinto style, likely owing to the fact that death is seen as pollution in the Shinto religion (Horton, 2012) • It is custom to turn to Buddhism in times of mourning and for funeral services (Ching, 1989) (平安祭典）

11. Japanese Religious In Home Icons Shinto : Kamidana • small household altar • used for worship • meant to house kami, or gods • Offerings to the kami: prayers and food items (Bocking,1997) • Offerings consist in their simplest forms (Ono, 1962) Shinto and Buddhist belief necessitate that families express an ongoing respect and concern for their dead as well as exhibit and pay regular attention to the household altar and or shrine (Buckley, 2002)

12. Japanese Religious In Home Icons small household altar used for ancestor worship used for prayers and greeting the deceased offerings: fruit, rice, flowers, et cetera Buddhism : Butsudan “In some households both may be present and the two can also merge into one altar, with a mix of Buddhist and Shinto iconography and functions.” (Buckley, 2002)

13. Definition of Death, Controversy in Japan • Reasons behind the brain death debate: • Traditionally, bodily warmth is likened to life energy, thus a warm body with a beating heart and reflex movement (brain death) does not transfer well to Japanese belief • Conflict regarding brain death and transplantation procedures – less organ donors • Brain death is seen as a Western influence (Morioka, 1995; Wicks, 2000) • The original Japanese organ transplant law (1997) did not allow donators to be under 15 years old • Transplants for small children were impossible • July 2010 a new law removed the age restriction however donors are scarce • Between 1997 and October 2009 at least 102 Japanese received heart transplants outside of Japan, 63 were under 18 (The Japan Times, 2011)

14. Research Method • Participants of the Study • Demographics • 82 Participants • 41 Japanese University Students • 24 female, 17 male • 41 American University Students • 17 female, 24 male • Ages 18-32 • Research Instrument: • Online survey (Japanese - English) • Google Docs • Facebook

15. Survey Results • Research Question 1: How do Japanese and American university students define “death”?

16. Survey Results 1: Definition of Death • Great majority of Japanese students define death as both brain death with the heart ceasing to function • Most common definition for American students is brain death

17. Research Question 1: Definition of Death – Other Section • 3 Japanese surveyed chose the ‘Other’ option • “(Death is) when others quit believing that someone is living.” (Japanese Male, 21) • “I think that the medical definition is also important …. I know it is a bad thing to say but, I cannot see how someone ‘living in a vegetative state’ is really living at all.” (Japanese Male, 21) • “I cannot define it.”(Japanese Male, 21)

18. Research Question 1: What Comes After Death? 1/2 Thought about it but do not know what to believe 34% Reincarnation 27% Thought about it but do not know what to believe 37% That is the end of it all 32% Majority of both American and Japanese students claim to have “thought about what comes after death, however do not know what to believe”

19. Research Question 1: What Comes After Death 2/2 Reasons behind their definition of what comes after death: American Students Most common answer: Logic No idea what to believe Lack of evidence – lack of a definite answer Japanese Students Most common answer: So many explanations exist– I am unsure what I believe Lack of evidence – lack of a definite answer Wishful thinking

20. Research Question 1: What Determines What Will Happen After “Death”? American Students Most common answer: Irrelevant as nothing happens after death / natural physical processes No idea / no way of knowing Japanese Students Most common answer: Own behavior (karma) No idea / no way of knowing

21. Summary of Survey Results 1 Research Question 1: How do Japanese and American university students define “death”? • The way in which Japanese students define death appears to be heavily influenced by Buddhist beliefs • 27% believe in reincarnation • Many believe one’s own behavior (karma) dictates what occurs after death • American students way of defining death appears to be heavily influenced by scientific concepts and theories • 32% believe that death is the end of it all • 46% define death as brain death, another 39% use both brain death and heart cessation • Many believe that after death only natural physical processes • However the many students are unsure how to define death

22. Survey Results Continued • Research Question 2: What, if any, religious factors affect the way in which Japanese and American university students define “death”?

23. Research Question 2: Family’s Religion Buddhist/Shinto 73% Christian Religions 55% question with multiple answer possible

24. Research Question 2: Student’s Religion Completely Non-religious 30% Buddhist/ Shinto 53% Atheist 33% Agnostic 29% Agnostic, Atheist, or completely non-religious students: Americans: 76% Japanese: 39% question with multiple answers possible

25. Research Question 2: Family Choice of Funeral Service Christian 49% Celebration of life/ Non-religious 37% Shinto 18% Buddhist 69% 49% of American families would hold a Christian style funeral 87% of Japanese families would hold a Buddhist or a Shinto style funeral question with multiple answers possible

26. Research Question 2: Student Choice of a Funeral Service Buddhist 57% Celebration of life/ Non-religious 62% Shinto 20% 62% of American students would hold a non-religious funeral 77% of Japanese students would plan a Buddhist or Shinto style funeral question with multiple answers possible

27. Research Question 2: What, if any, religious factors affect the way in which Japanese and American university students define “death”? Summary of Survey Results 2 • American families: mostly align themselves with a Christian religion, mostly Catholic • American students: mostly atheists or agnostic • Religious Japanese families and students: overwhelmingly align themselves with Buddhism and/or Shintoism • Nearly 40% of Japanese students are non-religious • 54% American families would hold a religious funeral while only 26% American students would do the same • 77% of Japanese students would plan a Buddhist or Shinto style funeral

28. Survey Results Continued • Research Question 3: How do Japanese and American university students compare to each other in their beliefs regarding spirits, ghosts, and otherwise incorporeal essences of the deceased?

29. Research Question 3: Belief in Non-Visible Deceased Beings Far more Japanese students support the belief that non-visible incorporeal beings exist on Earth

30. Research Question 3: Belief in Visible Deceased Beings Far fewer students support the belief in visible incorporeal beings than of non-visible

31. Research Question 3: Been Told That Someone Deceased Is “Watching Over You”1/1 More American than Japanese students have been told that a deceased ancestor, friend, or otherwise is “watching over you” or some similar statement

32. Research Question 3: In What Ways Have You Been Told A Deceased Person Is “Watching Over You” 2/2 Note: multiple choice question

33. Research Question 3: “Watching Over You”– Examples 37 American students surveyed chose the ‘Other’ option

34. Research Question 3: “It is important to visit grave sites/resting places/urns and pay homage to the dead” Japanese students: 90% agrees with the statement 0% disagrees

35. Research Question 3: How do Japanese and American university students compare to each other in their beliefs regarding spirits, ghosts, and otherwise incorporeal essences of the deceased? Summary of Survey Results 3 • Belief in Incorporeal Essences • Far more students support a non-visible appearance • More Japanese students than American support the existence of incorporeal essences • “Watching Over You” • Vast majority of students have been told that a deceased ancestor, friend, or otherwise is “watching over you” or a similar statement • Homage to the Dead • 90% of Japanese students believe homage is important, despite 39% claiming no religious affiliation

36. Conclusion • Perceptions of death are highly personal and are difficult to classify as there are such a great number of individual beliefs. • Americans students • Tend to rely on science to define death • Most rely on logic – leading them to both scientific and theistic beliefs • A small number follow a religion much like the students relying on science do • Japanese students • Tend to have less scientific relating views • Many have a mixed set of beliefs • Overall their beliefs often match with various Buddhist and Shinto teachings

37. Discussion • Important Findings • Practices which are likely Japanese cultural, rather than religious aspects • Belief in brain death with heart cessation • Importanceplaced on homage to the dead • Buddhist/Shinto style funerals • Few American students see themselves as religious and their mostly science-based beliefs match well with their non-support of religion • Limitations • Only 41 students surveyed from each group • Improvements • Addition of interviews • Increase number of students surveyed to 100+ from both groups • Future studies • Study perceptions of death further by expanding the age group • Study religious behavior and belief in particular

38. Bibliography 1 • Becker, C. B. (1993). Breaking the circle: Death and the afterlife in Buddhism. United States: Southern Illinois University. • Bocking, B. (1997). A popular dictionary of Shinto. London: Curzon Press. • Buckley, S. (2002). Buddhism. In S. Buckley (Ed.), Encyclopedia of contemporary Japanese culture (pp. 49-51). London: Routledge. • Buckley, S. (2002). Butsudan and kamidana. In S. Buckley (Ed.), Encyclopedia of contemporary Japanese culture (pp. 56-57). London: Routledge. • Buckley, S. (2002). Death and funerals. In S. Buckley (Ed.), Encyclopedia of contemporary Japanese culture (pp. 102-103). London: Routledge. • Child organ transplants still face hurdles. (2011, April 28). The Japan Times. Retrieved from http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2011/04/28/national/child-organ-transplants-still-face-hurdles/#.UX9QEivSD_D • Ching, J. (1993). Chinese religions. Great Britain: The Macmillan Press Ltd. • Ching, J., & Küng, H. (1989). Christianity and Chinese religions. (1st ed.). New York: Doubleday. • Kimura, R. (1996). Death and dying in Japan. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 6(2), 374-378.  • Horton, S. J. (2012). Shinto. Retrieved from http://www.deathreference.com/Sh-Sy/Shinto.html#b

39. Bibliography 2 • Long, S. O. (2003). Becoming a cucumber: Culture, nature, and the good death in Japan and the United States. Journal of Japanese Studies, 29(1), 33-68. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25064363 • Long, S. O. (2001). Negotiating the "good death": Japanese ambivalence about new ways to die. Ethnology,40(4), 271-289. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3773877 • Mahayana. (2012). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/358037 • Miller, A. S. (1995). A rational choice model of religious behavior in Japan. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 34(2), 234-244. • Morioka, M. (1995). Bioethics and Japanese culture: brain death, patients' rights, and cultural factors. Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics, 5, 87-90. Retrieved from http://www.lifestudies.org/japanese.html • Morioka, M. (2012). The concept of life in contemporary Japan. The Review of Life Studies, 2, 23-62. Retrieved from http://lifestudies.org/inochi.html • 森岡, 正博. (2007). 生命学とは何か. 現代文明学研究, 8, 447-486. Retrieved fromhttp://www.kinokopress.com/civil/0802.htm • Ono, M. (1964). Shinto: the kami way. C.E. Tuttle. • Pew Forum’s U.S. Religious Landscape Survey. (2007) Report 1: Religious Affiliation Findings. Retrieved from http://religions.pewforum.org/reports • Sagara-Rosemeyer, M., & Davies, B. (2007). The integration of religious traditions in Japanese children’s view of death and afterlife. Death Studies,37, 223–247.

40. Bibliography 3 • Shimazono, S. (2012). 近代日本の死生観言説と死生学 : 伝統的な死生観の継承と展開. 神学研究, 59, 127-141. Retrieved from http://kgur.kwansei.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/10236/8893/1/59-11.PDF • Tadao, K. (2010, August 24). Insights into the world / caring for cancer patients and the bereaved. Daily Yomiuri Online. Retrieved from http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/columns/commentary/T100823000945.htm • Truog, R. D. (1997). Is it time to abandon brain death?. The Hastings Center Report, 27(1), 29-37. • U.S. Census Bureau. (2012). Self-Described Religious Identification of Adult Population. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/population/religion.html • United States. Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. (2006) International Religious Freedom Report 2006. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71342.htm • Wicks, M. N. PhD, RN, CCRN (2000). 脳死と移植：日本人の場合 . Medscape Transplantation. Retrieved from http://www.lifestudies.org/jp/ishokuho03.htm  • Yamaori, T. (1996). 近代日本人の宗教意識. Tokyo, Japan: 岩波書店. Retrieved from http://www.worldcat.org/title/kindai-nihonjin-no-shukyo-ishiki/oclc/36090693

41. Media Resources • Butsudan [Photograph]. (2007). Retrieved May 1, 2013, from: http://kawakitaso.jp/modules/pukiwiki/?%CA%A9%C3%C5 • Kamidana [Photograph]. (2005). Retrieved May 1, 2013, from: http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB:Kamidana.jpg • 平安祭典. (n.d.). 一般的葬式. Retrieved from: http://www.heiansaiten.co.jp/case/case_01.html • [Untitled photograph of a kamidana with Japanese explanatory notes]. Retrieved May 1, 2013, from：http://store.shopping.yahoo.co.jp/kamidana/bde9a4e1a4.html

42. Acknowledgements • Dr. Yoshiko Saito-Abbott • Dr. Shigeko Sekine • All of the students who graciously participated in this survey study • Mr. Hanayama