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“Projects run on requirements, resources and risks”. - Augmenting the ‘iron triangle’ to keep an eye on critical success factors during a project Steve Armstrong ( Open University ). Subjects. Models and modelling Critical success factors Stakeholders. Starting point.
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“Projects run on requirements, resources and risks” - Augmenting the ‘iron triangle’ to keep an eye on critical success factors during a project Steve Armstrong (Open University)
Subjects • Models and modelling • Critical success factors • Stakeholders
Starting point • Taking a systems view in order to explore the relationships between the factors and actors that have an influence on the course of action as the project plan is realized • But, watch out for the ‘shifting sands’ of project working • reframing a requirement can make it forcibly relevant to a new set of stakeholders • a significant event can cause stakeholders to switch roles and this is likely to change their requirements
Models • A model is a way of expressing a particular view of an identifiable system of some kind • So, models are • a way of understanding the problems involved • an aid to communication among those involved, especially when a deliverable is being investigated • a component of the methods used in a given activity, such as the financial modelling done to test the feasibility of a proposal
Interactions between stakeholders • Conflict as a source of problems • when a stakeholder perceives that his or her interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another • So many expectations • “What do you expect to achieve …” • profound influence on project evaluation
The sources of conflict have implications for the management of risk • Incompatible goals • Different values and beliefs • Task interdependence • Scarce resources • Ambiguous rules • Communication problems
Some influences on satisfaction cultural and social values project outcomes personal values expectations satisfaction
Two distinct perspectives on project success • Success criteria • related to the What? question, which include both qualitative and quantitative measures • Critical success factors (CSFs) • related to the How? question, which are to be found in the project and its environment
Some examples of success criteria • The facility is produced to specification within budget and on time • The project achieves its business purpose and meets its defined objectives and quality thresholds so as to be profitable for the owner • The project team is happy during the project and with its outcome • Users are happy during the project and with its outcome • The project is profitable for the contractors • The project satisfies the needs of stakeholders
The ‘top five’ CSFs • Support from senior management • Clear, realistic objectives • Strong/detailed plan kept up to date • Good communication/feedback • User/client involvement ‘top five’ (out of 27) after a review of 63 publications
The ‘bottom five’ CSFs • Correct choice/past experience of project management methods/tools • Environmental influences • (learning from) past experiences • Project size/level of complexity/number of people involved/duration • (appreciating) different viewpoints ‘bottom five’ (out of 27) after a review of 63 publications
Criticisms of the CSF approach • the inter-relationships between CSFs are at least as important as the individual ones • the CSF approach ignores the potential for a factor to have varying levels of importance (and relevance) at different times during the project
The Formal Systems Model (FSM) • is a framing device to deliver the benefits of using CSFs • whilst, at the same time, taking into account their inter-relationships and dynamics our interpretation has changed • the sense of uniqueness with regard to projects indicates that each CSF will affect projects in different ways • for example, a business case might contain a prioritised list of critical success factors to reflect the context in which the proposed project will take place
Classifying CSFs using project attributes within the FSM • Goals and objectives • Clear realistic objectives (2) • Strong Business case/ sound basis for project (9) • Performance monitoring • Effective monitoring/control (16) • Planned close down/review/acceptance of possible failure (20)
Classifying CSFs using project attributes within the FSM (contd.) • Decision makers • Support from senior management (1) • Strong/detailed plan kept up to date (3) • Competent project manager (8) • Good leadership (11) • Realistic schedule (13) • Correct choice/past experience of project management methods/tools (23)
Classifying CSFs using project attributes within the FSM (contd.) • Transformations • Skilled/suitable qualified/ sufficient staff/team (6) • Communication • Good communication/feedback (4) • Environment • Organisational adaptation/culture/structure (18) • Political stability (22) • Environmental influences (24) • (learning from) past experiences (25)
Classifying CSFs using project attributes within the FSM (contd.) • Boundaries • Project size/level of complexity/number of people involved/duration (26) • Resources • Sufficient/well allocated resources (10) • Proven/familiar technology (12) • Adequate budget (17) • Good performance by suppliers/contractors/consultants (19) • Training provision (21)
Classifying CSFs using project attributes within the FSM (contd.) • Continuity • Risks addressed/assessed/managed (14) • General • User/client/ involvement (5) • Effective change management (7) • Project sponsor/champion (15) • (appreciating) different viewpoints (27)
The project context • The sense of uniqueness with regard to projects indicates that each of the above factors will affect projects in different ways. • A business case should contain a prioritised list of critical success factors to reflect the context in which the proposed project will take place. • For each critical success factor, it may be possible to identify a qualitative or quantitative measure that can be monitored during the project. • Any variation beyond a given threshold for a particular critical success factors can be interpreted as placing the project at risk.
Using influence diagrams • Modelling the main structural features of an issue and the important relationships that exist among them • Each one is a snapshot of a situation in order to identify the factors and actors that have a direct influence on a central issue of interest • e.g. it is possible to identify obstacles to the implementation of a new policy or strategy • Influence diagrams are very rich in the information that they can capture • e.g. they can be used to gain an understanding of stakeholders’ attitudes
Some of the factors and actors concerned with a project’s success
Using multiple cause diagrams • A multiple cause diagram can be used to identify and tackle the causes of a complex problem in a systemic way • often derived from influence diagrams • They are used to explore why a given event happened or why a certain class of events tends to occur • The phrases used in a multiple cause diagram relate to a state • such as a ‘flat battery’, • or an event • such as ‘battery goes flat’
The normal starting point • What is the state or event to be explained? • The answer becomes the focal point of the diagram • e.g. a lack of support form senior management is detected • Then, you can work outwards and backwards through the chains of causal connections to identify the relevant sequences and/or loops
Alternatively • You might begin by assuming that a particular project had failed • Then, consider changes in state for the CSFs • lack of user involvement • lack of resources • unrealistic expectations • incomplete requirements • lack of planning • insufficient training
Multiple cause diagrams are not intended to predict behaviour • But, they may be used to construct a list of factors to bear in mind when investigating comparable circumstances in the future • part of a ‘regular health check’ • i.e. a component in the analysis of risk • In practice, some further annotation may be required when there is insufficient evidence to denote a causal connection • e.g. an arrow might be associated with other phrases like: ‘contributes to’, ‘is followed by’ or ‘enables’
Summary • An understanding of the issues relating to a project’s requirements, resources and risks is the basis for a successful implementation of a plan to meet the time, cost and quality criteria • Modelling is a way of thinking about things and ideas in the ‘real world’ • “Modelling and testing are fundamental aspects of quality management.” (APM BoK 2006, p.62) • Modelling may have a role in the lessons learnt from a project • Would keeping a repository of such information promote a more reflective practitioner?