Lab Activity 32

1. Lab Activity 32 Urinalysis Portland Community College BI 233

2. Filtration • Occurs in the renal corpuscles: blood pressure forces water and small dissolved molecules to move from the glomerular capillaries to the capsular space and is called the filtrate

3. Filtrate • Contains mostly water along with excess ions (mostly sodium and potassium), glucose, amino acids and nitrogenous waste products. • Lacks RBCs and large plasma proteins.

4. Reabsorption • Almost all the water (99%) • As well as glucose, amino acids and various ions. • These are returned to the blood by passing from the renal tubules to the peritubular capillaries or vasa recta

5. Secretion • Unwanted substances such as metabolic wastes, drugs and excess ions (hydrogen and potassium) are removed from the blood and enter the renal tubules. • Most occurs in DCT and collecting ducts

6. Urine • Normally contains about 95% water • Various ions (sodium, potassium, sulfate, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate) • Amino acids, lipids and carbohydrates • Urea, uric acid and creatinine

7. Universal precautions • You will be examining the physical and chemical characteristics of your own urine sample • Work with your urine only • Wear gloves, safety eyewear, and a mask • Clean spills with 10% bleach solution • Anything that comes into contact with urine goes into an autoclave bag.

8. Physical Characteristics of Urine • Color and transparency • Clear, pale to deep yellow (due to urochrome) • Concentrated urine has a deeper yellow/amber color • A red or red-brown (abnormal) color could be from a food dye, eating fresh beets, a drug, or the presence of either hemoglobin or myoglobin. • If the sample contained many red blood cells, it would be cloudy as well as red. • Turbidity or cloudiness may be caused by excessive cellular material or protein in the urine

9. Physical Characteristics of Urine • Odor • Fresh urine is slightly aromatic • Standing urine develops an ammonia odor • Some drugs and vegetables (asparagus) alter the usual odor • Elevated ketones smells fruity or acetone-like

10. Physical Characteristics of Urine • Specific gravity measures density of urine compared to water • Ranges from 1.001 to 1.035 • 1.001 is dilute • 1.035 is concentrated • Is dependent on solute concentration • > 1.035 is either contaminated or contains very high levels of glucose • Patients who have received radiopaque dyes or dextran can also have high specific gravity

11. Chemical Composition of Urine • Urine is 95% water and 5% solutes • Nitrogenous wastes include urea, uric acid, and creatinine • Other normal solutes include: • Sodium, potassium, phosphate, and sulfate ions • Calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate ions • Abnormally high concentrations of any urinary constituents may indicate pathology

12. “Dipstick" method: chemical reactions cause color changes on ten different pads on the test strip. Leukocytes Nitrite Urobilinogen Protein pH Blood Blood Ketones Bilirubin Glucose Urinalysis

13. Dipstick Urinalysis Interpretation pH: large range 4.5 to 8.0 (average is 6.0) • The urine pH should be recorded, although it is seldom of diagnostic value. • Diet can alter pH • Acidic: high protein diet, ketoacidosis • Alkaline: vegetarian diet, UTI

14. Dipstick Urinalysis Interpretation Nitrite: Might indicate bacterial infection with gram-negative rods (like E. coli) If bacteria are present, they convert nitrates to nitrites Normal=negative

15. Dipstick Urinalysis Interpretation Bilirubin: indicates the presence of liver disease or biliary obstruction A small amount of bilirubin in urine is normal excessive amounts is called • Bilirubinuria: appearance of bilirubin in urine • Yellow foam when sample is shake

16. Dipstick Urinalysis Interpretation Urobilinogen: Produced in the intestine from bilirubin. Gives feces brown color Normal=small amount • Absence: renal disease or biliary obstruction • Increased in any condition that causes an increase in production or retention of bilirubin • Hepatitis, cirrhosis or biliary disease

17. Dipstick Urinalysis Interpretation Leukocytes: Indicates infection or inflammation Normal=negative • Pyuria: Leukocytes in urine • Cystitis: Bladder infection • Pyelonephritis: Kidney infection

18. Dipstick Urinalysis Interpretation Blood: Almost always indicates pathology because RBC are too large to pass through glomerulus Normal=negative • Hematuria: Blood in urine • Possible causes: Kidney stone, infection, tumor • Caution: Very common finding in women because of menstruation.

19. Dipstick Urinalysis Interpretation Protein: Usually proteins are too large to pass through glomerulus (Proteinuria usually represents an abnormality in the glomerular filtration barrier.) Normal=negative • Trace amounts normal in pregnancy or after eating a lot of protein • Albuminuria: Albumin in urine

20. Dipstick Urinalysis Interpretation Glucose: In general the presence of glucose indicates that the filtered load of glucose exceeds the maximal tubular reabsorptive capacity for glucose. Normal=negative (can occur temporarily after eating a high carb meal or during stress) • Glycosuria: Glucose in urine

21. Dipstick Urinalysis Interpretation Ketones: Intermediate products of fat metabolism • Urine testing only detects acetoacetic acid, not the other ketones, acetone or beta-hydroxybuteric acid. • Normal=negative or trace amounts • Ketonuria: ketones in urine • (Ketonuria + glucose in urine may indicate diabetes mellitus)

22. Urine sediments • If a urine sample is centrifuged, the sediment can be viewed microscopically to examine the solid components. • Some solids are normally found in urine

23. Chemical Analysis • Sulfates: Normal constituent of urine • The urinary sulfate is mainly derived from sulfur-containing amino acids and is therefore determined by protein intake. • Phosphates: Normal constituent of urine • Important for buffering H+ in the collecting duct • Chlorides: Normal constituent of urine. • Major extracellular anion. • Its main purpose is to maintain electrical neutrality, mostly as a counter-ion to sodium. • It often accompanies sodium losses and excesses.

24. sediments • Cells- small numbers of epithelial cells that are shed from various regions of the urinary tract. • Large numbers of WBSs and any amount of RBCs are abnormal usually indicate disease

25. Microscopic ExaminationPyuria: WBC in Urine • Normal: • Men: <2 WBCs per hi power field • Women: <5 • WBC generally indicate the presence of an inflammatory process somewhere along the course of the urinary tract

26. Microscopic ExaminationHematuria: RBC in Urine • RBC's may appear normally shaped, swollen by dilute urine or crenated by concentrated urine. • The presence of dysmorphic (odd shaped) RBC's in urine suggests a glomerular disease such as a glomerulonephritis. Crenated RBC Dysmorphic RBC

27. Microscopic Examination Epithelial Cells • Transitional epithelial cells originate from the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder and/or urethra. • Large sheets of transitional epithelial cells can be seen in bladder cancer. Squamous epithelial cell Transitional epithelial cell

28. Microscopic ExaminationCasts • Casts: hardened cell fragments formed in the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts • Form when cells clump together • Usually form when urine is acidic or contains high level of proteins or salts • Usually pathological. • Can only be seen with microscopic examination

29. Microscopic ExaminationEpithelial Cells • Too many squamous cells: suggest contamination, poor specimen collection

30. White Cell Casts • Usually indicates pyelonephritis (kidney infection) • Other causes: Interstitial Nephritis (inflammation of the tubules and the spaces between the tubules and the glomeruli. )

31. Red Cell Casts • Red blood cells may stick together and form red blood cell casts. • Indicative of glomerulonephritis, with leakage of RBC's from glomeruli, or severe tubular damage.

32. Hyaline Casts • Hyaline casts are composed primarily of a mucoprotein (Tamm-Horsfall protein) secreted by tubule cells. • Causes: Low flow rate, high salt concentration, and low pH, all of which favor protein denaturation and precipitation of the Tamm-Horsfall protein. Hyaline Casts appear Transparent

33. Calcium Oxalate Crystals • They can occur in urine of any pH. • Causes: Dietary asparagus and ethylene glycol (antifreeze) intoxication

34. Uric Acid Crystals • High uric acid in blood (by-product of purine digestion/high protein diet) • Associated with gout (arthritis)

35. Struvite Crystals • Formation is favored in alkaline urine. • Urinary tract infection with urease producing bacteria (eg. Proteus vulgaris) can promote struvite crystals by raising urine pH and increasing free ammonia.

36. Chemical Analysis • Urea: The end product of protein breakdown • Uric acid: A metabolite of purine breakdown • Creatinine: Associated with muscle metabolism of creatine phosphate.

37. Microscopic ExaminationBacteria • Bacteria are common in urine specimens (from contamination) • Therefore, microbial organisms found in all but the most scrupulously collected urines should be interpreted in view of clinical symptoms. A = crenated RBC, B = RBC, C = bacteria

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