Cyberpsychology B.Sc. Psychology: PSY30116 Time Slot: Thursday 11:15am-1.05 pm Room: 6E2.2 Lecturers:

1. Cyberpsychology B.Sc. Psychology: PSY30116 Time Slot: Thursday 11:15am-1.05 pm Room: 6E2.2 Lecturers: MB: Mark Brosnan M.J.Brosnan@Bath.ac.uk tel: 386 081 room: 2 S 1.12 JG: Jeff Gavin J.Gavin@Bath.ac.uk tel: 386 591 room: 2 S 1.04A

2. All notes on Mark Brosnan’s home page: • http://staff.bath.ac.uk/pssmjb/

3. What is Cyberpsychology?Ask Wikipedia… • Cyberpsychology is the study of the human mind and behavior in the context of human-technology interaction. However, mainstream research studies seem to focus on the impact of the Internet and cyberspace on the psychology of individuals and groups. Some hot topics include: online identity management, personality types in cyberspace, transference to computers, addiction to computers and Internet, regressive behavior in cyberspace, online gender-switching, etc.

4. Structure of the course Week 1: MB Introduction Week 2: MB Technophobia Week 3: JG Theories of Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) Week 4: JG Cross cultural aspects of computer-mediated communication (CMC) Week 5: MB Artificial Consciousness and affective computing Week 6: MB Neurocyberpsychology Week 7: JG Identity construction in online settings Week 8: JG Technofeminism Week 9: Small group activity: Group portfolios Easter Break! Week 10: Small group activity: Presentation planning Week 11: Small group activity: Presentations

5. Assessment • There is one piece of assessment with two parts: • 20% - Oral presentation - Weeks 10 - 11 • 80% - 2250 word maximum (excluding references, excluding appendices) essay based on presentation topic.

6. Portfolio • During Weeks 1 to 8, all students must keep a portfolio detailing their online activities. • These portfolios will be used to evidence theories covered in lectures. The portfolio should be reflective, upon how you felt - such as feelings of anxiety or other emotional responses to your interaction, providing examples of miscommunications etc. Also, what factors influenced your choice of communication media: whether to text, call, email, etc.

7. Group presentation of portfolio (20%) • Students need to form into groups for presentations. Presentations will evidence pertinent examples from the portfolios that are consistent or inconsistent with the theories covered in the cyberpsychology lectures. • Choose a positive and negative experience and discuss how cyberpsychology can explain these experiences.

8. Individual write up of portfolio (80%) • For the write-up, any aspect of the presentation can be focused upon and can incorporate additional examples and counter examples, as appropriate from the group portfolios.

9. Portfolio structure • Today you will be given a questionnaire that has been used before to assess internet use. This can inform the structure of your portfolio. • In addition we will (attempt to!) facilitate a Second Life cyberpsychology experience. This should be recorded in your portfolio but does not have to be used for the presentation or write up.

10. Today’s lecture • Cyberpsychology • Technophobia • Technophilia

11. Clarke (2003) • E-learning has the power to transform the way we learn and bring high-quality, accessible learning to everyone – so that everyone cab achieve his or her potential. • Gender always emerges as a salient variable and this difference can be useful for understanding why people use or don’t use the Internet.

12. Gender differences in use • USA: 73% males, 69% females • UK: 64%, 55% females • Italy 42% males, 22% females

13. Gender differences in online activity • Males – information searching and entertainment • Females – interpersonal communication • (e.g. Jackson et al., 2001) • Cross cultural (USA, UK, Hong Kong, Singapore)

14. More gender differences • Females have less positive attitudes towards the Internet than males, reporting greater disorientation and disenchantment. • Females are less confident in their internet-related abilities • Females are more anxious using the Internet than males

15. Cooper and Weaver (2003) • Anxiety • Doubt ability • Disidentify • Negative attitudes • Avoidance

16. Internet anxiety • The irrational anticipation or fear evoked by the thought of using (or actually using) computers, the effects of which result in avoiding or minimising usage. • Brosnan (1998) • Negatively correlates with use • Cross-cultural

17. Internet Identification • Social identity within the domain of the Internet • Self-esteem bound with ability in that domain • To what extent is an individuals self-concept related to their perceived ability to use the Internet? • Defining in groups and out groups

18. Holloway and Valentine (2003) • 14 year old boys whose social network was based upon their identification with computers • Defined as ‘geeks’ or ‘boffins’ by peers • Girls actively avoid using the Internet in school.

19. Facer et al. (2003) • Identified three types of relationship between identity and technology in school children: • 1) Interested: They ‘lived’ through the computer • 2) Disinterested: They were technologically literate, but computers were marginal in their lives • 3) Uninterested: Computers were seen as irrelevant or actively in opposition to identity • But could change between ages 13-16

20. Joiner, Gavin, Brosnan et al. (2005) • Internet identification and anxiety in 608 psychology undergraduates • Males used the Internet more than females • What predicted Internet use: • Internet identification, Internet anxiety and gender, accounting for around 40% of the variance of current use

21. Joiner, Gavin, Brosnan et al., (2006) • Do these factors predict future use? • 216 Psychology undergraduate students monitored over one academic year • Replicated internet identification correlating with current use • Internet identity very consistent over the academic year, i.e. stable • Internet identity at the beginning of the year predicted internet use at the end of the year

22. Joiner, Brosnan, Gavin et al. (2007) • Do these factors extend beyond the UK? • 446 undergraduates from the UK and Australia • 8% reported being highly anxious • Again Internet anxiety and identity predicted Internet use

23. Subcomponents of Internet Identity • Being part of an Internet community (34%) • Similarity to other Internet users (20%) • Importance of Internet for studies (10%) • Sex difference only in first factor • Sex difference in anxiety • Internet community perceived as a masculine domain?

24. Gavin, Brosnan, Joiner et al. (2007) • ‘Draw an Internet user’ task and Identity • 371 undergraduates • Males used the Internet more and had stronger Internet identity and these variables correlated • 59% of males drew males • 30% of females drew females • Females who drew males disidentified with the Internet and had least use. Not the case for males (but few drew females, many ‘undetermined’)

25. In summary • Identification and anxiety are important variables in determining Internet use • Consistent gender differences in these variables • A masculinised image of the Internet can have negative consequences for some females • No single hegemonic stereotype of an Internet user

26. Technophobia • Computer-related anxieties… • Technophobia: An irrational anticipation of fear evoked by the thought of using (or actually using) computers, the effects of which result in avoiding, or minimising, computer usage (Brosnan, 1998: 17)

27. Three types (Rosen et al., 1993) • Uncomfortable users: Slightly anxious as they lack enough information to use computers efficiently • Cognitive technophobes: Seem OK but are undergoing critical internal dialogues (‘I’m going to loose all my work’, ‘everyone else seems to know what they’re doing except me’) • Anxious technophobes: Classic anxiety symptoms (sweaty palms, heart palpitations)

28. Prevalence • 50% of most populations – Office workers, Police, Teachers, School children • 5% anxious technophobes • $4.2billion per annum lost in the US through inefficiency and absenteeism directly related to IT

29. Anxiety • Speilberger’s (1966) Trait and state anxiety • Computer anxiety is a real phenomenon (Moldafsky and kwon, 1994: 301) • Not arousal • Anxiety leads to off-task cognitions • Reducing capacity in a limited working memory system • Impedes learning and achievement (Marcoulides, 1988)

30. Thorpe and Brosnan (2007) • Is technophobia a phobia?

31. Brosnan and Thorpe (2008) • Is it curable?

32. Flow • Csikszentmihalyi introduced the concept of flow, which he defined as “the holistic experience that people feel when they act with total involvement'” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, p. 36). • The term ‘flow’ represents ‘optimal experience’ that is events in which a person enters a mental state of complete absorption or engagement in an activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975).

33. Flow and Cyberpsychology • Several authors have since suggested that the concept of flow is useful for understanding several areas of Cyberpsychology such as web use and navigation, web marketing, technology use in information systems and HCI generally.

34. A ‘flow activity’ is one in which the mind becomes effortlessly focussed and engaged on an activity, rather than getting distracted. • Flow is not an ‘all-or-nothing’ state • 9 elements of flow

35. 1/9 elements of flow • a clear set of goals that require appropriate responses;

36. 2/9 elements of flow • feedback that is immediate and relevant;

37. 3/9 elements of flow • skills required for the task that are fully involved in overcoming a challenge that is just about manageable;

38. 4/9 elements of flow • the activity involves merging of action and awareness;

39. 5/9 elements of flow • distracting thoughts or irrelevant feelings are excluded;

40. 6/9 elements of flow • the person has a sense of control;

41. 7/9 elements of flow • the activity becomes worth doing for its own sake (‘autotelic’);

42. 8/9 elements of flow • there is no self-consciousness;

43. 9/9 elements of flow • awareness of time might become distorted;

44. Summary • A key feature of flow is that an activity features an appropriate balance of challenge and skills for a person. • If the challenge of an activity is too great for the person’s skills then they will become frustrated, lose interest and discontinue from being in flow. • Flow will also cease if the challenge of the activity is too low so it stops being interesting and boredom results.

45. Challenge vs. skill

46. Novak & Hoffman (2000)

47. Identify and describe 4 HCI-related flow states:

48. Computer addiction: • 5% of users (Shotton, 1989) • Case studies (Griffiths, 2000) • Clinical? (Charlton, 2002) • Coping strategy for the inadequate (Shotton, 1991) • Gender differences: mostly males

49. Are computers ‘boys toys’? • The introduction of IT in schools is leading to the establishment of yet another high status subject with a strongly masculine bias (Chivers, 1987: 17) • Sex roles developmentally important (Kagan 1964, Kohlberg, 1966) • Masculinity and femininity as assessed by the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974, 1981, 1993) • Femininity correlates with computer anxiety for males and females • Masculinity negatively correlates with computer anxiety • Controlling for these factors removes sex differences • Games

50. More readings • Key text: • Brosnan, M. (1998) Technophobia. (Routledge). Chapters 1 and 2. • Norman, D. (1998) The Design of Everyday Things. London: MIT press. • Technophobia: • Brosnan, M. (1999) The 'Draw-A-Computer-User' test: A new methodology, an old story? European Journal of Psychology of Education, 3, 375-385. • Brosnan, M. (1999)Modelling Technophobia: A Case for Word Processing. Computers in Human Behavior,15, 105-121. • Brosnan, M. (1998) The salience of surface features upon task performance. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 203-215 • Brosnan, M. (1998) The impact of psychological gender, gender-related perceptions, significant others and the introducer of technology upon computer anxiety in students. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 18(1), 63-78. • Brosnan, M. (1998) The impact of computer anxiety and self efficacy upon computer performance. The Journal of Computer Aided Learning, 14, 223-234 • Brosnan, M. (1998) The role of psychological gender in the computer-related attitudes and attainments of primary school children (aged 6-11). Computers and Education, 30(3/4), 203-208. • Brosnan, M. and Lee, W. (1998) A cross-cultural comparison of sex differences in computer attitudes and anxieties: The United Kingdom and Hong Kong. Computers in Human Behavior, 14(4), 559-577. • Computer addiction: • Charlton, J. (2002) A factor analytic investigation of computer addiction and engagement. British Journal of Psychology, 93(3), 329-344. • Griffiths, M. (2000) Does Internet and computer ‘addiction’ exist? Some case study evidence. Cyberpsychology and Behaviour, 3(2) 211-218. • Shotton, M. (1989) Computer addiction? A study of computer dependency. London: Taylor and Francis. • Shotton, M. (1991) The costs and benefits of computer addiction. Behaviour and Information Technology, 10, 219-230. • Psychological gender: • Bem, S. (1974) The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(2), 155-162. • Bem, S. (1975) Sex role adaptability: One consequence of psychological androgyny. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(4), 634-643. • Bem, S. (1977) On the utility of alternative procedures for assessing psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45(2), 196-205.