Nigeria

1. Nigeria

2. Why Study Nigeria? • Nigeria is a megastate • Its importance is derived from its large population, oil reserves, and centrality to the study of Africa • Nigeria embodies the much of the variety of African political experience.

3. Why Study Nigeria? • Nigeria embodies of the variety of African political experience. • varied heritage • colonial rule • Achievement of independence • Political parties = ethnic cleavages • Social welfare state/responsibility • Pattern of violence and military dominance

4. Why Study Nigeria? • Provides useful insights into the challenges of developing nations • Major challenges facing Nigeria • Maintaining the balance of civil/military relations • Managing ethnic diversity • Transitioning from autocratic/military rule to democracy • Exploiting natural resources for public good • Determining role of religion in politics

5. Population: 140 million Territory: 356,668 sq. miles Year of Independence: 1960 Year of Current Constitution: 1979 Constitution still partially in force; draft 1995 Constitution published and revised in 1999 (the 1999 Constitution) Head of State: President Goodluck Jonathan Head of Government: President Goodluck Jonathan Language: English (official), Hausa,Yoruba, Igbo, (and 250 other ethnic groups) Religion: Muslim: 50% Christian: 40% Indigenous beliefs: 10% Country Bio: Nigeria

7. Overview: The Big Picture • System of Government: Presidential System • Distribution of Power: Federal System • Electoral System: Single Member District Plurality • Constitution: Constitution of 1999 • Legislature: Bicameral—Senate and House of Rep. • Current Head of State: President Goodluck Jonathan • Head of Government: President Goodluck Jonathan • Current Ruling Party: People’s Democratic Party (PDP) • Major Political Parties: People’s Democratic Party (PDP) All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP), Action Congress (AC)

9. Big Ideas to Keep in Your Head ! • No Cross Cutting Cleavages • Ethnic, Regional, and Religious Coincide • No National Identity! • Nigeria is only 50 years old • Country created because of colonialism • Parliamentary system failed…why? • Presidential system is working…why?

10. Nigeria’s “National Question” “National Question” = the differing opinions about how political power should be distributed and how the government should be structured. • In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run deeper than other countries • Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders nor its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how • Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one nation • Regional disagreements & hostilities • Problems traditionally solved by military force and authoritarianism

11. Constitutionalism • First constitution written in 1914 • Eight constitutions between 1914 and 1995 • Current constitution written in 1999 • Acceptance of “constitutionalism” and the rule of law as a guiding set of principles has eluded Nigeria • Military and civilian leaders have felt free to disobey and suspend constitutional principles or change constitutions not to their liking • Without constitutionalism the “National Question” has been much harder to answer

12. Legitimacy • Nigeria is a relatively young country, achieving independence in 1960, this makes establishing legitimate government more difficult • Fragmentation – tendency to fall apart along ethnic, regional, and/or religious lines. • Contradictory Influence of the Past – British colonial “rule of law” vs. Military rule/Personalized authority • Corruption – both military and civilian rule tainted with corruption. Citizens question the payment of taxes that are deposited in personal bank accounts • General Ibrahim Babangida (1985-1993) • General Sani Abacha (1993-1998)

13. Political Cleavages • Ethnicity – Nigeria has between 250-400 ethnic groups, Huasa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and speak different languages • Religion – Islam, Christianity, and native/animist religions. • Region – follow along ethnic and religious lines • Urban vs. Rural Differences – most political organizing, interest groups, and political protest takes place in cities • Social Class – deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites stems from access to Nigeria’s resources. Maintained their power by appealing to religious and ethnic identities. Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up wealth associated with access to state treasury, educated elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles.

14. Cleavages • The importance of ethnicity, religion, and region in the political life of Nigerianscannot be underestimated. • Most contentious political issues influence and/or are influenced by these three identities. • Biafran Civil War 1967-1970 • Explicit ethnic overtones • Eastern Igbo attempted to secede from the country

15. Hausa-Fulani North Muslim Yoruba Central Both Igbo South Christian

16. Cleavages

17. Nigeria’s Largest Ethnic Groups • Ethnic Identity • Hausa-Fulani • Mostly northern half of Nigeria • Predominately Muslim • Legacy of emirates • Indirect colonial rule • Subsistence farming, rural, generally undeveloped villages • Yoruba • Southwestern Nigeria • Lagos—former capital • Oba and lineage chiefs and the British • Fragmenting effect of multiple ethnic identities • Igbo (lbo) • Southeastern part of Nigeria—OIL RICH REGION (tried to secede) • Predominantly Christian (both Roman-Catholic and Protestants) • Responsive to western culture—Western educated • Developed for market agriculture

20. Sharia in Nigeria • The source of political authority in the Northern states, NOT Southern states (the Hausa-Fulani and Kanuri people are predominantly Muslim) • Has caused conflict in the drafting of all three of Nigeria’s constitutions • Includes separate codes of conduct for men and women • Northern states have their own Islamic courts, where defendants represent themselves • Women are NOT allowed to vote under Islamic law in Nigeria

24. HIV/AIDS in Nigeria

26. Political Culture • Modern political culture is characterized by ethnic diversity and conflict, corruption, and a politically active military • Patron-Clientelism • State control yet active civil society • Tension between modernity and tradition • Religious conflict • Ethnic diversity • Geographic influences

27. Political Culture and Subculture • Nigerians generally identify themselves first and foremost by their ethnic group, not as Nigerian • Few sources of Nigerian Nationalism • Nigerians who fought for the British in WWII • Nigerians who studied in U.K. and U.S. • The Military Today

28. Political Culture and Subculture • Democratic Norms and Values • Alternated between democratic and military rule • Had both parliamentary and presidential system (federal/presidential system seems to work better in countries with such diversity) • Maintaining stable democracy is challenge • Most Nigerians believe that democracy is the best form of government, but they tend to distrust their elected leaders

29. Political Culture and Subculture • Democratic Norms and Values • Cycle of Rule: • Democracy • Military rule with promise to return to democracy • Majority party would pass policies very easily and “funnel” resources of the state to its own ethnic group. • This would lead to frustration, hostility, and frequently a coup by one or more opposing parties or ethnic groups. • The Presidential system has been somewhat more successful due to separation of powers • Most of the educated people of Nigeria hold democratic values and have faith in the political process

30. Political Culture and Subculture • Political Role of Women • Position of women varies immensely • Igbo and Yoruba allow women to hold jobs and elected office. • Hausa-Fulani restrict role of women (Islam) and have low rates of literacy and education and jobs • In general Nigerian women vote in similar numbers as men but are underrepresented in government. • Political Corruption • A pervasive problem--all governments claim they will make change, but don’t (can’t) • “Corruption has taken over the engine of government in Nigeria. It’s what runs everything.”-- Nuhu Ribadu, “corruption fighter”

31. Patron-Clientelism “prebendalism” • the practice of exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients… a practice that invites corruption • the patron (political leader) builds loyalty among his clients (lesser elites) by granting them favors that are denied to others… creating “loyalty pyramids” • Nigerian example: in exchange for political support, a Nigerian president may grant a portion of oil revenues to his client • society at-large does not benefit from these favors, generally the political elite do • In Nigeria, patrons are linked to clients by ethnicity and religion

32. Types of Corruption in Nigeria • Political corruption • Corruption at the highest levels of political authority • Distorts institutions of government by greed of officials (especially local and state officials) • Since 1960, ~ $400 billion has disappeared from the Nigerian treasury, lining the pockets of many • Bureaucratic corruption • Lower levels of corruption encountered on a daily level in places like hospitals, schools, local licensing offices, etc. • Electoral corruption • Purchase of votes with money • Promises of political favors; • Interference in elections; intimidation at the polls

33. Curbing Corruption? • Chairman of Nigeria’s Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) from 2003-2007; appointed by President Obasanjo, who had run on an anti-corruption campaign • sent prominent businessmen and high-level government officials, including his own boss, to jail • took on Nigeria’s powerful governors, known for treating their states like personal fiefdoms, lining their pockets with federal money meant to serve the peoples’ needs • made a lot of powerful enemies during his tenure, while becoming a national hero to many Nigerians; the Nigerian press named him “Man of the Year” • many foreign companies operating in Nigeria, including American-based companies like KBR and Halliburton, have been fined millions of dollars Nuhu Ribadu “Nigerian corruption fighter”

34. Curbing Corruption? • dismissed from his job by President Yar’Adua in 2007 • survived several assassination attempts and has worked for a Washington, D.C.- based think-tank for the last few years, The Center for Global Development • ran for president (and lost) in the 2011 elections representing the Action Congress Party • recently appointed by Goodluck Jonathan as the chair of a new 21-member oil watchdog taskforce; will monitor crude oil production and exports and track revenues paid to the government Nuhu Ribadu “Nigerian corruption fighter”

35. Corruption Levels2011 CPI scores from Transparency International UK 7.8 Russia 2.4 China 3.6 Mexico 3.0 Iran 2.7 Nigeria 2.4

36. Current Policy Challenges • Key Transition Year of 1999: • Nigeria returned to formal civilian rule when Olusegun Obasanjo was elected president. • Test of Current Government: • How can a potentially wealthy country fail to provide basic human needs, education, potable water, reliable transportation and communications, and engage in politics without corruption? • Still ranked as one of the poorest and most corrupt countries in the world

37. Public Policy Challenges To survive, or, more optimistically, flourish, Nigeria’s elected leaders face a myriad of economic and political challenges that will require a gradual and deliberate transformation bold enough to champion real change, but mindful that the military has the potential to return to power if given the opportunity. The future of Nigeria hangs on this precarious balance

38. Public Policy Challenges • Ethnic/Religious Tensions • Civil/Military Relations • Regional Instability • Corruption • Financial transparency • Poverty alleviation • Quality health care • Population Growth • Education • Oil extraction • HIV/AIDS • DEBT!

39. Environmental Potential and Limitations • Population Growth • 45% of Nigeria is under 15 years of age. • Children considered a valuable resource in agricultural societies • Population is growing rapidly = negative impact on economic growth • Shifting from rural to urban = smaller portion of labor force available for food production = drop in food production per capita

41. Environmental Potential and Limitations • Agricultural Production & Sale of Commodities • Colonialism had a huge impact on Nigerian economy • British forced the production and export of certain goods • Peasant farmers pushed to grow and export goods chosen by the British • Nigeria became dependant on exports of commodities such as palm oil and cocoa • Nigeria is now a net importer of food!

42. Environmental Potential and Limitations • Urbanization • Quickly becoming urban society • Urban infrastructure is strained as a result • Petroleum • The curse of oil! • Nigeria has relied on oil to finance imports and large scale development projects, thus fluctuations in markets control the ability of Nigeria to pay its debts • This has caused high rates of inflation • The location of the oil and the distribution of benefits have had political consequences, most notably in Biafra • Biafra • Igbo population frustrated with central government for not distributing a greater share of oil wealth-thus their attempt to secede • Oil was main cause for Biafran Civil War 1967-1970

44. Environmental Potential and Limitations • Dist. Natural resources: Political Effects • Eastern region of country holds oil reserves • National government view: national resource • Eastern citizens (Igbo) have yet reaped full benefits of their treasure • Direct cause of Biafra Independence movement: secession • Individuals who own oil in east tend to be non-Igbo minorities • Environmental degradation: east pays price while handing over most of the benefits. • MEND (Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta) • The International Environment • Biggest problem: debt it owes Western creditors • Oil curse caused this • Government spends a high percentage of national budget repaying debt—at the expense of social programs.

45. MOSOPMovement for the Survival of the Ogoni People • Non-violent movement founded in 1990 to bring attention to the environmental degradation in Ogoniland (NE Niger Delta) • Promotes self-determination and democracy for the Ogoni people • Opposes foreign oil companies extracting wealth from their homeland • The Nigerian government has responded with military force to break up protests and demonstrations • In 1995, under the Abacha regime, nine MOSOP leaders were convicted on “incite of murder” charges and hanged in an effort to silence their vocal opposition to foreign oil companies Ken Saro Wiwa, executed in 1995

46. MENDMovement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta • Largest militant group active in the Niger Delta region • Advocates violence as a means of resistance to what they consider enslavement of the people of the Niger Delta region and the theft of their natural resources • Expose the exploitation of natural resources and the people of the region by public-private partnerships (Nigerian government and major oil companies—Shell, Chevron, etc.) • Tactics include bombing of pipelines, property destruction, sabotage of oil production equipment, and the kidnapping of foreign oil company employees

47. MENDMovement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta In a January 2006 email, MEND warned the oil industry: "It must be clear that the Nigerian government cannot protect your workers or assets. Leave our land while you can or die in it.... Our aim is to totally destroy the capacity of the Nigerian government to export oil."

48. Policy Formation and Implementation • There are many policies that the current government is struggling with, including, corruption, debt, ethnic and religious conflict, HIV/AIDS, bureaucracy retraining • Nigeria’s public policies greatly affected by world community • World Bank “Structural Adjustment Program” or SAP • Generally favors privatization and free trade • International Monetary Fund • Both have been active in attempts to restructure Nigeria’s debt • Nigeria depends on its income from oil • Oil revenue income has been source of political corruption • Oil revenues down, corruption and mismanagement prevent state from being able to pay teachers and civil servants • OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) • NNOC (Nigerian National Oil Corporation)

49. Policy Formation and Implementation • Standard of living has not improved in recent years • Oil revenue has had little impact on GDP • Nigeria spends large portion of budget on military • Has enabled them to maintain a high profile in the region • Increased number of children in schools • Poor performance on providing basic health care • Income gap between rich and poor increased • “national cake”: Federal gov. spends between two-thirds three fourths

50. Political Traditions • Nigeria’s Political Traditions can be divided into three specific eras: • Pre-Colonial Era (800-1860) • Colonial Era (1860-1960) • Independence Era (1960-now)