Chapter 10, Section 2:

1. Chapter 10, Section 2: Retrieving Information Ahmed Ekri, Khalid Mayoof, Isa Aqeel, Hisham Hadi, Ali Fadhel, Abdulrahman Busheri.

2. 1. Recognition • Recognition provides insight into how information is stored in memory. • Memory recognition is the skill to recognize or identify previously encountered experiences(people, events, or places). The stimulant of memory recognition is re-experiencing past events. When re-experiencing events, you will be able to match the content to the past event because the brain recognizes that the memory has already been stored before.

3. Examples • The most common example of memory recognition is when you recognize a familiar face, but you cannot remember what the person’s name is. • Another example of recognition is when you hear a particular sound of an instrument, you would be able to identify it. For instance, a piano can be identified whether any tune is being played on it. When you hear the sound, you will quickly identify that it is a piano.

4. Role of Stored Memory on Recognition • In stored memory, a single item of information is stored under several headings, so it could be reached in many ways. • So, if a person you know has physical features that could be stored in a lot of categories and subcategories, you would be able to recognize him much easier than others. Basically, people who are more unique than others can be recognized easier.

5. 2.Recall • Recall is the active reconstruction of information. • Just think about the amount of recall involved in a simple conversation. • Recall is influenced by reconstructive processes. • Reconstructive processes is the alteration of a recalled memory that may be simplified or disorted on an individual experiences or attitudes. • There is one type of mistake which is known as Confabulation, which is when a person remembers a memory that was never stored in the memory.

6. How are our memories reconstructed? Our memories are reconstructed in terms of Schemas. • Schemas are conceptual frame works a person uses to make a sense of the world. • Around 5% of all children do not seem to reconstruct memories actively. However, this is because of them having an eidetic memory. • Eidetic memory is the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short term exposure.

7. State-Dependent Learning • Have you ever become upset at someone and while doing so, remembered many past instances of when you were upset at the same person? This is an example of state dependent learning. • State dependent learning occurs when you recall information easily when you are in the same physiological or emotional state or setting as you were when you originally encoded the information.

8. However, this is why some people advise you to study for a test in the same classroom or setting in which you will take the test. Being in a certain physiological or emotional state serves as a cue to help you more easily recall stored information.

9. 3. Relearning What is Relearning? • Relearning in psychology is a way of remembering things. • Relearning involves learning the same things consecutively in order to recall the information. • For example A student specialized in banking and financial spending academic studying however in future at business life the student he relearning through actual experience

10. 4. Forgetting • Forgetting: Experiences of a failure of memory from time to time; Fail to remember.- Forgetting may involve decay, interference, or repression. • Decay: Inputs (information) fade away over time.- Inputs decay quickly in sensory storage and short-term memory.- Inputs in long-term memory are unsure whether they can ever decay or not.- Forgotten information can be recovered through meditation, hypnosis, or brain stimulation.

11. Interference • Interference: Blockage of a memory by previous memories; Impairing memory.- Two kinds, Proactive and Retroactive interference.- Both interferences are separate concepts. • Proactive interference: An earlier memory blocks you from remembering later information. • Retroactive interference: A later memory blocks you from remembering information learned earlier. • Repression: Blockage of memory by embarrassing or frightening experience.

12. Amnesia • Amnesia: Loss of memory that may occur after a blow to the head or as a result of brain damage.- Can also happen due to drug usage or psychological stress. • Infant Amnesia: The relative lack of early declarative memories.- Freud: Memories repressed because of emotions.- Nonverbal memories.- Hippocampus did not yet be mature.

13. 5. Improving Memory Meaningfulness and association • Elaborative rehearsal • A more efficient way of remembering new information • Relate the information to what you already know • Example : You would more likely remember the letters AMILFY if they were arranged to form the word FAMILY • Technically, you would remember things more vividly if you relate them to things stored in your memory

14. This is how it works, after the information is stored in your memory, it would recall the information again when it is needed.

15. The more categories a memory is indexed under, the more accessible it is • The more senses and experiences you use when trying to memorize something, the more likely you will be able to retrieve it • The best way to protect a memory from interference is to • Overlearn it • Repeat the new information and rehearse it well, even if you think you know it • Avoid studying similar material together • For example instead of studying history just after political science, study biology in between • It is far more effective to study little at a time, it is called distributed practice

16. The way you originally learn or remember something influences how readily you recall the information later • If a bit of information is associated with a highly emotional event or if you have learn it with no interference, you will easily recall the information because of the strength of the memory

17. MnemonicDevices Mnemonic device is a technique for using associations to memorize and retrieve information. However, this device is not magical but it requires form the person to do extra work.

18. Advantages • Provides a framework in order to remember any type of information. • They are useful as they remove the need for regular repetition. • Improve the persons memory.

19. Disadvantage • Do not guarantee the person the he/she will remember the information. • Requires time in order to learn and practice. • Overuse can result in making the person feel confuses.

20. An Example The ancient Greeks used to remind the speeches using the mnemonic devices that includes mentally walking around their homes as well as linking each line of their speeches with different spot names as Method of Loci.

21. Mnemonic devices can also be made by forming mental pictures. For example, Picasso was a Cubist, the way to remember this phrase is that a person attacks a giant CUBE with a PICKAX which will mainly sounds like the word Picasso.