Absolute Zero

1. Absolute Zero & Heat Transfer

3. Kinetic Energy Manifestations Cold Spots

4. AbsoluteZero is precisely the equivalent of 0 degrees Absolute zero is the point at which the fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. Unlike classical physics, quantum physics reveals astonishing and fascinating new phenomena. For example, atomic particles still move about at absolute zero - a consequence of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle. These quantum fluctuations can result in transformations between different material states. If these phase transitions occur at absolute zero they are referred to as quantum-critical points, the study of which has delivered many surprising new findings in recent years. Matter & Energy When scientists know beyond all reasonable doubt that a particular principle is the case, then it is dubbed a law. Laws address the fact that certain things happen, as well as how they happen. A theory, on the other hand, attempts to explain why things happen. By definition, an idea that is dubbed a theory has yet to be fully proven, and such is the case with the atomic theory of matter. • Thermodynamics • Physics • Quantum Physics

5. Heat Transfer = Thermodynamics What is heat? How does heat transfer take place? What are the effects on matter when heat transfers from one body to another? Heat transfer is a process by which internal energy from one substance transfers to another substance. Thermodynamics is the study of heat transfer and the changes that result from it.

6. Effects of Heat Transfer Heat A form of energy associated with the motion of atoms or molecules and capable of being transmitted through solid and fluid media by conduction, through fluid media by convection, and through empty space by radiation. The basic effect of heat transfer is that the particles of one substance collide with the particles of another substance. The more energetic substance will typically lose internal energy (i.e. "cool down") while the less energetic substance will gain internal energy (i.e. "heat up"). The most blatant effect of this in our day-to-day life is a phase transition, where a substance changes from one state of matter to another Heat Capacity The heat capacity of an object helps define how that object's temperature responds to absorbing or transmitting heat. Heat capacity is defined as the change in heat divided by the change in temperature. Laws of Thermodynamics Heat transfer is guided by some basic principles which have become known as the laws of thermodynamics, which define how heat transfer relates to work done by a system and place some limitations on what it is possible for a system to achieve

7. What are the States of Matter? The simplest way to describe a state of matter is that it indicates how much heat is contained within the molecules of the substance. The more heat that is added, the more the molecules move and the harder it is for them to stay close together. The state of matter is dependent therefore upon both the temperature and pressure of a given substance. There are essentially 5 states of matter: gas liquid solid plasma superfluid (such as a Bose-Einstein Condensate) In common experience, you will typically only run into the first three - solids, liquids and gases. Plasma is actually the most abundant state of matter in the universe, because it is the state that exists inside stars that are undergoing nuclear fusion. Ball lightning is an example of plasma that manifests on the Earth. Superfluids exist only for certain types of molecules when they are cooled to temperatures near absolute zero, when quantum effects begin to manifest.

8. Phase Transition Substances can go through a number of transitions between their states: condensation - gas to liquid fusion (or freezing) - liquid to solid melting - solid to liquid sublimation- solid to gas vaporization - liquid or solid to gas As mentioned before, these transitions are governed for a given substance by the temperature and pressure Sublimation is the term for when matter undergoes a phase transition directly from a solid to gaseous form, or vapor, without passing through the more common liquid phase between the two. It is a specific case of vaporization.

9. The current measurements of magnetization and length changes when a magnetic field is applied YbRh2Si2 gave the researchers proof of the fundamental difference of quantum phases compared to classical phase transitions as listed on previous page. Whereas in the latter example, the physics can be described fully by the fluctuation of one order parameter, in this case the molecule density, there is an additional change to the properties at the quantum critical point in YbRh2Si2. "Our measurements," says Phillip Gegenwart, who until recently headed the Low Temperatures competence group at the Max Planck Institute in Dresden and is now Professor at the 1st Physical Institute at the University of Göttingen, "prove the existence of another energy scale at the quantum critical point that cannot be explained by the fluctuations of magnetic order parameters". The analysis shows that the additional energy scale can be traced back to a change in the electronic properties, or more precisely, a change of the Fermi volume. In classical phase transition, these effects do not occur March 5, 2007 A team of German and American researchers observe a new phase transition The results show that unexpected behavior, which cannot be reconciled with the current theoretical model, occurs repeatedly in the quantum world. This motivates theoreticians, such as the participating American researchers Qimiao Si from Rice University and Elihu Abrahams from Rutgers University, to search for new approaches in order to gain a better understanding of quantum systems. New theoretical models are needed to better understand the complicated behavior of modern complex systems, such as the high-temperature superconductor.

10. Quantum Effects Make the Difference The atomic constituents of matter are never still, even at absolute zero (-273.15 degrees Celsius). This consequence of quantum mechanics can result in continuous transition between different material states . Until now, it has been assumed that the properties of a transition of this nature can be described completely with the fluctuations of one parameter, in this case, magnetic order. However, the experiments that have now been published reveal, completely unexpectedly, an additional change to the electronic properties of the transition. It confirms again that quantum effects can result in phenomena that are inconceivable in classical physics. On the one hand, the results extend the general understanding of phase transitions and, on the other, are also relevant to complex systems, such as high-temperature superconductors the mechanism that results in the creation of high-temperature superconductivity is still not understood, more than 20 years after its discovery.

11. The relationship of temperature, motions, conduction, and heat energy The nature of kinetic energy, translational motion, and temperature At its simplest, “temperature” arises from the kinetic energy of the vibrational motions of matter’s particle constituents (molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles). The full variety of these kinetic motions contribute to the total heat energy in a substance. The thermodynamic temperature of any bulk quantity of a substance (a statistically significant quantity of particles) is directly proportional to the average—or “mean”—kinetic energy of a specific kind of particle motion known as translational motion. Internal energy The total kinetic energy of all particle motion—including that of conduction electrons—plus the potential energy of phase changes, plus zero-point energy comprise the internal energy of a substance, which is its total heat energy. The term internal energy mustn’t be confused with internal degrees of freedom. Whereas the internal degrees of freedom of molecules refers to one particular place where kinetic energy is bound, the internal energy of a substance comprises all forms of heat energy. The electron, which is a fermion, is bound to the nucleus by photons, which are bosons. The whole shebang together forms atoms. Atoms form molecules. Molecules form objects.

12. Energy transmitted through space or through a material medium in the form of electromagnetic waves. The term can also refer to the emission and propagation of such energy. Whenever an electric charge oscillates or is accelerated, a disturbance characterized by the existence of electric and magnetic fields propagates outward from it. This disturbance is called an electromagnetic wave. The frequency range of such waves is tremendous, as is shown by the electromagnetic spectrum in the table. The sources given are typical, but not mutually exclusive In theory, any electromagnetic radiation can be detected by its heating effect. This method has actually been used over the range from x-rays to radio. ionization effects measured by cloud chambers, photographic emulsions, ionization chambers, and Geiger counters have been used in the γ- and x-ray regions Radiation made up of oscillating electric and magnetic fields and propagated with the speed of light. Electromagnetic radiation includes gamma radiation, X rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible radiation, infrared radiation, radar, and radio waves.

13. "The more I study physics, the more I am drawn to metaphysics."~ Albert Einstein

14. Heat Energy • Conduction is when heat flows through a heated solid. • Convection is when heated particles transfer heat to another substance, such as cooking something in boiling water. • Radiation is when heat is transferred through electromagnetic waves, such as from the sun. Radiation can transfer heat through empty space, while the other two methods require some form of matter-on-matter contact for the transfer. Under the kinetic theory, the internal energy of a substance is generated from the motion of individual atoms or molecules. Heat energy is the form of energy which transfers this energy from one body or system to another. This heat transfer can take place in a number of ways: Heat transfer (also called thermal transfer) can occur only if a temperature difference exists, and then only in the direction of decreasing temperature.

15. If you were standing next to the camp stove, you would be warmed by the radiation emitted by the gas flame. A portion of the radiant energy generated by the gas flame is absorbed by the frying pan and the pot of water. By the process of conduction, this energy is transferred through the pot and pan. If you reached for the metal handle of the frying pan without using a potholder, you would burn your fingers! As the temperature of the water at the bottom of the pot increases, this layer of water moves upward and is replaced by cool water descending from above. Thus convection currents that redistribute the newly acquired energy throughout the pot are established. Practically all of the energy that reaches the earth comes from the sun. Intercepted first by the atmosphere, a small part is directly absorbed, particularly by certain gases such as ozone and water vapor. Some energy is reflected back to space by clouds and the earth's surface. Most of the radiation, however, is absorbed by the surface. Radiation is the transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic wave motion. The transfer of energy from the sun across nearly empty space is accomplished primarily by radiation. Radiation occurs without the involvement of a physical substance as the medium. The sun emits many forms of electromagnetic radiation in varying quantities. About 43% of the total radiant energy emitted from the sun is in the visible parts of the spectrum. The bulk of the remainder lies in the near-infrared (49%) and ultraviolet section (7%). Less than 1% of solar radiation is emitted as x-rays, gamma waves, and radio waves.

16. What is a Cold Spot ? Some people suggest that the coldness of a cold spot indicates that heat has been abstracted for some paranormal process. If so, it is curious because heat is about the worst source of energy you could choose. There is a natural phenomena that has a real physiological effect on someone without a change in the air temperature.Draughts are the obvious example but there are others. Draughts and convection Air is almost always on the move in a room, even with the door and windows closed. This is because the surfaces of some objects are at different temperatures to others. Heat will be exchanged between the objects in an attempt to equalize the temperature. This is done mainly through convection.

17. Convection can be defined as vertical circulation that results from differences in density ultimately brought about by differences in temperature, and it involves the transfer of heat through the motion of hot fluid from one place to another. In the physical sciences, the term fluid refers to any substance that flows and therefore has no definite shape. This usually means liquids and gases, but in the earth sciences it can refer even to slow-flowing solids. Convection and Heat As indicated in the preceding paragraph, convection is related closely to heat and temperature and indirectly related to another phenomenon, thermal energy. What people normally call heat is actually thermal energy, or kinetic energy (the energy associated with movement) produced by molecules in motion relative to one another. Heat Transfer Through Convection Like conduction and unlike radiation, convection requires a medium. However, in conduction the heat is transferred from one molecule to another, whereas in convection the heated fluid itself is actually moving. As it does, it removes or displaces cold air in its path. The flow of heated fluid in this situation is called a convection current. Some concepts and phenomena cross disciplinary boundaries within the earth sciences, an example being the physical process of convection. It is of equal relevance to scientists working in the geologic, atmospheric, and hydrologic sciences, or the realms of study concerned with the geosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere, respectively.

18. CONDUCTION: Conduction occurs when two object at different temperatures are in contact with each other. Heat flows from the warmer to the cooler object until they are both at the same temperature. Conduction is the movement of heat through a substance by the collision of molecules. At the place where the two object touch, the faster-moving molecules of the warmer object collide with the slower moving molecules of the cooler object. As they collide, the faster molecules give up some of their energy to the slower molecules. The slower molecules gain more thermal energy and collide with other molecules in the cooler object. This process continues until heat energy from the warmer object spreads throughout the cooler object. Some substances conduct heat more easily than others. Solids are better conductor than liquids and liquids are better conductor than gases. Metals are very good conductors of heat, while air is very poor conductor of heat. You experience heat transfer by conduction whenever you touch something that is hotter or colder than your skin e.g. when you wash your hands in warm or cold water. Conduction is the transfer of heat by direct contact of particles of matter. The transfer of energy could be primarily by elastic impact as in fluids or by free electron diffusion as predominant in metals or phonon vibration as predominant in insulators. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from atom to atom. Conduction is greater in solids, where atoms are in constant contact. In liquids (except liquid metals) and gases, the molecules are usually further apart, giving a lower chance of molecules colliding and passing on thermal energy.

19. Whereas the Sun's electromagnetic energy is the source of heat behind atmospheric convection, the energy that drives geologic convection is geothermal, rising up from Earth's core as a result of radioactive decay. Radiative heat loss Though it is less obvious than convection, cold spots can also be created by radiative heat loss. When you stand directly in front of an electric fire or radiator, you will feel heat. Less well known is that people can LOSE heat in the same way. If you stand directly in front of a cold object, such as an un-curtained window on a cold night, you will feel colder. Your body is radiating heat in all directions. However, it will radiate more, to maintain its temperature, in the direction of cold objects. This additional loss of heat will be felt as cooling. Generally, you need to be quite close to a cool object to get the radiative loss. Like a heater, if there is anything between you and cool object, you may not feel the effect. Like convection, a conventional thermometer will not register this apparent temperature drop.

20. Radiant heat is produced by surfaces (such as walls, windows, furniture, etc.). The temperature of the heat given off is directly related to the temperature of the surface ('black body radiation') and NOT to the surrounding air. It is radiant heat that is measured by those infra-red ('laser') thermometers that you point and shoot. Radiant heat goes straight to other surfaces nearby, including people. Objects emit radiation when high energy electrons in a higher atomic level fall down to lower energy levels. The energy lost is emitted as light or electromagnetic radiation. Energy that is absorbed by an atom causes its electrons to "jump" up to higher energy levels. All objects absorb and emit radiation. absorption of energy balances the emission of energy, the temperature of an object stays constant. If the absorption of energy is greater than the emission of energy, the temperature of an object rises. If the absorption of energy is less than the emission of energy, the temperature of an object falls.

21. Through rudimentary physical science we know that when a natural temperature differential in an area occurs it is understood to be the result of a physical interaction caused by the convection process where warm and cool air masses collide and the warm air rises and the cooler air sinks. However, when dealing with the subject of paranormal cold spots we know that research indicates this particular type of manifestation occurs on the infrared wavelength of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. Infrared energy is experienced as heat though, so that explanation seems to take us in the opposite direction of the answer we are looking for…or does it? The key here is that generation of heat only occurs in the case of IR (infrared) radiation. Speaking strictly from the standpoint of light and not conductive radiation, we know that IR light on the EM spectrum is expressed as: Wavelength: 0.01 - 7x10 to the negative fifth (-5th ) power Frequency: 3x10 to the twelfth (-12th) power to 4.3x10 to the fourteenth power (14th) Energy: 0.01 - 2 eV (eV - electron volts).What this means is that although anomalous paranormal occurrences take place on the infrared portion of the EM spectrum they create a pocket of ionized air when they physically manifest in our local environment. The bioelectric charge of the anomaly creates a weak electrical matrix in the local atmosphere when the anomaly manifests. The electrical matrix then ionizes the air around the area of the manifestation. The ionized air symmetrically radiates outward from the point of manifestation and is experienced as a cool sensation or, as paranormal investigators calls it, a cold spot. From this explanation we understand that although the manifestation takes place in the infrared spectrum it is actually the ionized air that creates the cooling effect. If ionized air is electrically charged and conducts a weak electrical pulse through it, the current would then spark from the anomalous manifestation into the area around it creating a String Effect matrix, somewhat like connecting-the-dots. How does this matrix work? The particle-wave duality of quantum mechanics creates a state where mediating fields, such as those that occur during a paranormal manifestation, can be described as fields that “exchange particles” where the transfer of momentum and energy between objects occurs. In this instance the “objects” would be the paranormal anomaly and the local environment and the “energy and momentum” would be the negatively charged electron exchange that acts as the causation for the ionization process in the air. What this means is that, crudely speaking, the paranormal manifestation and the local environment interact as they emit and absorb charged particles, in effect playing a subatomic game of “catch” with electrons.

22. As the particulate exchange takes place the charged particles create invisible contrails, or spectral lines. These spectral lines, when affected by magnetism such as the Earth’s geomagnetic field, split into more lines exponentially increasing their numbers. This splitting is called the Zeeman Effect. The pattern and amount of splitting that takes place during this process are physical signatures that a magnetic field is present. All magnetic fields have a charge which is either positive or negative and the spectral lines associated with Zeeman splitting exhibit these polarization effects. Polarization, whether positive or negative, show the direction in which the electromagnetic fields are vibrating. This in turn, can have an effect on whether the spectral light can be observed or not and may explain the “now you see it, now you don’t” effect when taking multiple photographs in an area where you have a paranormal anomaly in one photo but not in others. Speaking of photographs, understanding the bioelectric matrix during an anomalous manifestation can also aid us in our knowledge of paranormal photography. How? When a paranormal anomaly manifests, the bioelectric matrix around it is usually polarized with a negative charge caused by electrons, which ionizes the air in the immediate vicinity. This polarized charge within an ionized local environment allows photographic devices to interpret the anomalous occurrence as a semi-solid form of manifested bioelectricity rather that a light reflective solid as some researchers previously theorized. Some researchers or paranormal investigators may say that it is not possible to capture energy of this nature in a photograph. All evidence and photos aside, in rebuttal, I would ask if they have ever seen a photo of lightening – this effect, as explained above, is of the same nature, only in this instance we are working with a lesser electrical charge. The above processes may also offer explanations in some instances where electromagnetic “haze” is observed in paranormal photographs and may also weigh in on the subconscious level as to why people get certain feelings of fear or dread when they are in an area that is active with paranormal occurrences.

23. A molecule is comprised of two or more chemically bonded atoms. The atoms may be of the same type of element, or they may be different. The velocity of a substance's molecules determines its temperature; the faster the molecules move, the more volume they require, and the higher the temperature becomes. Internal energy , a specific quantum of thermodynamics , is the sum total of the kinetic energy of a body that has well defined boundaries, due to the three types of movement( vibrational, rotational, translational) of molecules within the body. It is different in proportion to the macroscopic energy that is usually found in moving objects. Internal energy is microscopic in nature and invisible as it is on the atomic and molecular scale of measurement. A ferromagnet heated to a temperature higher than the "Curie temperature" will lose its magnetization. However, as it is cooled, it will again develop a magnetic field with a specific direction