Prelude to the Restoration

1. The Restoration & the Enlightenment (1660-1798) “The Long 18th Century" Neoclassical Period 1700+ Comes from Renaissance to mid 1600’sLeads to Romanticism End of 1700’s

2. Prelude to the Restoration • Early-Modern English (1500-1800) • Printing in England since 1476 (King James bible the english bible removes some influence of the Latin, likewise, Roman influence and the Pope. • Predominant scholarly language still Latin on the Isle. (Newton, Bacon;)  • 'English' by this time is a mishmass of loanwords and usages. • Attempts to simplify English before the mid 1700's predominantly fail. • printers, and the scribes of Chancery support grammar standardization and a stop occurs to segments of spelling. • A language shift occurs: “the development of ‘Modern English’” from the renaissance through the restoration. • The English of this period is VERY readable for readers of our era. Latin, however, may not be, and much of the records prior to 1700’s are in Latin.

3. Puritans Out Indulgence In • The long parliament of 1640 sparks incineration of traditional values, such as, "divine right of kings“, dramatically so when Charles I’s is beheaded.(1649) • ‘Dynastic Throne’ morphs into Cromwell’s republic ‘the Commonwealth’ • A decade later Cromwell dies, and the status quo’s disruption causes Richard, Cromwell’s son, to falter as lord protector. • A ‘coup’ attempt leads General Monke of Scotland to London to restore the parliament. • Wealth from trade raises the commons power & prestige.  • Sentiment for the restoration of the monarchy abounds, as to fill the void of the last twenty puritan authored years. • Anglican parliament grant Charles II son of Charles I the title of King. • Charles II’s terms for possession of the crown of England are outlined in the Declaration of Breda. (April 4, 1660) • The word Restoration comes from the return of Charles II, or the restoration of the monarchy. Powers of the monarchy are in decline, however the era of the republic is but a mark in history, as Charles II is crowned ‘Rex Regis’ (1661)  

4. MAIN CHANGES • Oral (Continued transition from renaissance) Theatre (Restoration Comedies) • Written - Gallic models of literature and literature of wit (particularly satire and parody). • Poetry was the premier form of literature • legal language and the establishment of lasting "legal language" • HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHT - indulgence and profanity. • BATTLE OF THE SEX’S - First women authors • BATTLE OF THE FAITH - Diverse Culture / Religion / Politics / Philosophy ‘The Great Awakening’ • 1688 the ‘glorious revolution’ turnstile for great point of change • By George emergence of science from philosophy of logic and empiricism gains predominance in ‘the Englightenment’ • From Imperialist to memory of the great experiment of Rome and the emergence of the neoclassical era.

5. Arts & Sciences •  Establishment of the Royal society the oldest learned society still in existence . Official foundation date is 28 November 1660, when 12, including Professor Wren, Robert Boyle, John Wilkins, Sir Robert Moray, and William, Viscount Brouncker met at Gresham College and found a Colledge for promotion of ‘Physico-Mathematicall Experimentall Learning’. ‘physics’

6. Where is it? • The Restoration, as a period, was badly documented, and the institutions that did keep records, Oxford and Cambridge, the Inns of Court and the Middle Temple, excluded women from their ranks. • Restoration genres vary in time they exist, most end before 1700. When the neoclassical era becomes nominal. Literary happenings predominantly occur around London but also elesewhere including the major schools. (Cambridge 50 miles north of London , Oxford roughly the same distance) London is a favorite subject of writers.

7. Historical Context: • 50% of the men are functionally literate (a dramatic rise) • Fenced enclosures of land cause demise of traditional village life • ‘Factories’ begin to spring up as industrial revolution begins • Impoverished masses begin to grow as farming life declines and factories build • Coffee houses-where educated men spend evenings with literary and political associates versus the court of olde. • In many ways it is the MODERN era’s birth, science, commons powers, mass media, and orders.

8. AUTHORS OF THE AGE • Authors: Johnson “A man who exposes himself when he is intoxicated, has not the art of getting drunk. “ • Bunyan “If we have not quiet in our minds, outward comfort will do no more for us than a golden slipper on a gouty foot. “ • Milton “Better to reign in hell than serve in heav'n. “ • Dryden “By education most have been misled; So they believe, because they were bred. The priest continues where the nurse began, And thus the child imposes on the man. “ • Defoe “Wealth, howsoever got, in England makes lords of mechanics, gentlemen of rakes; Antiquity and birth are needless here; 'Tis impudence and money makes a peer.” • Richardson “Too liberal self-accusations are generally but so many traps for acquittal with applause. “ • Swift “As blushing will sometimes make a whore pass for a virtuous woman, so modesty may make a fool seem a man of sense. “ • Pope • Blake “If the Sun and Moon should ever doubt, they'd immediately go out. “ • Hobbes “The privilege of absurdity; to which no living creature is subject, but man only. “ • Locke “Every sect, as far as reason will help them, make use of it gladly; and where it fails them, they cry out, "It is a matter of faith, and above reason."

9. The Epitaph • Here rests his head upon the lap of Earth A Youth, to Fortune and to Fame unknown; Fair Science frown'd not on his humble birth, And Melancholy mark'd him for her own. • Large was his bounty, and his soul sincere; Heaven did a recompense as largely send: He gave to Misery all he had, a tear, He gain'd from Heaven, 'twas all he wish'd, a friend. - • No farther seek his merits to disclose, Or draw his frailties from their dread abode, (There they alike in trembling hope repose,) The bosom of his Father and his God. • By Thomas Gray (1716-71).

10. Restoration comedy, and Opera • Restoration theater featured witty and often acerbic comedies about social manners, a contrast to the great dramatic themes of Shakespeare’s era. • Restoration comedy was strongly influenced by the introduction of the first professional actresses. Before the closing of the theatres, all female roles had been played by boys, and the predominantly male audiences of the 1660s and 1670s were both curious, censorious, and delighted at the novelty of seeing real women engage in risqué repartee and take part in physical seduction scenes • Restoration comedy was strongly influenced by the introduction of the first professional actresses. • Women in breeches. • Noted Restoration dramatists: • "Manly Wycherley"William WycherleyLove in a Wood ? / The Gentleman Dancing Master (1673) and his two most famous The Country Wife and The Plain Dealer 1672 /1673 • William CongreveThe Old Bachelor (1693) / The Double-Dealer (1693) Love for Love (1695) The Mourning Bride (1697) and ranked one of the intellectually best ever english comedies The Way of the World (1700).. • England’s first operas were written in the late 17th century, and Henry Purcell is a noted British composer of the era.

11. Comedy Continued • Restoration comedy is the name given to Englishcomedies written and performed in the Restoration period from 1660 to 1700. After public stage performances had been banned for 18 years by the Puritan regime, the re-opening of the theatres in 1660 signalled a rebirth of English drama. • Restoration comedy is famous or notorious for its sexual explicitness, a quality encouraged by Charles II (1660-1685) personally and by the rakisharistocratic ethos of his court. Socially diverse audiences were attracted to the comedies by up-to-the-minute topical writing, by crowded and bustling plots, by the introduction of the first professional actresses, and by the rise of the first celebrityactors.

12. Satire • Satire A literary work in which human vice or folly is attacked through irony, derision, or wit. • It is hardly surprising that the world of fashion and skepticism that emerged encouraged the art of satire. • All the major poets of the period, Samuel Butler, John Dryden, Alexander Pope and Samuel Johnson, and the Irish poet Jonathan Swift, wrote satirical verse. • The satire was written in defense of public order and the established church and government • total freedom of opinion was not yet acceptable so satire was used. • Satire was used in the 18th century due to political and religious upheaval. e • satirization of institutions and individuals became a popular weapon. • Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) said to be one of the best prose satirists • the prose literature of dissent, political theory, and economics increased in Charles II's reign

13. ‘POLITICAL’ WRITINGS beginnings of explicitly political writing and hack writing. Roger L'Estrange was a pamphleteer who became the surveyor of presses and licenser of the press after the Restoration. In 1663-6, L'Estrange published The News • heroic drama, exemplified by John Dryden's The Conquest of Granada (1670) and Aureng-Zebe (1675) which celebrated powerful, aggressively masculine heroes and their pursuit of glory both as rulers and conquerors, and as lovers. These plays were sometimes called by their authors histories or tragedies, and contemporary critics will call them after Dryden's term of "Heroic drama." • Observations on the Dublin Bills of Mortality the Restoration period saw the beginnings of explicitly political writing and hack writing. Roger L'Estrange was a pamphleteer who became the surveyor of presses and licenser of the press after the Restoration. In 1663-6, L'Estrange published The News • Gulliver’s Travels a famous satire attacks “ the monarchy, the Catholic church and the Royal Society.

14. PROFANITY VULGARITY AND SEX Be it prostitute satirical sexism, cross dressing…from the female to male side this time, not as per Shakespearian renaissance times when the male dressed as the female, naked people in barrels. • However, the first instance of jurisprudence punishing public indecency. Sir Charles Sedley, in 1663, drunken in a tavern he climbed upstairs, took off all his clothes, and urinated onto the crowded street below. • Porn and censorship grew hand-in-hand after the Enlightenment. Obscenity gained ground on Blasphemy. Common law rather than Cannon law began to apply to obscene libel in England.

15. Milton • 1667 John Milton (1608–1674), author, poet, and supporter of the Commonwealth, publishes the first edition of Paradise Lost, an epic blank verse poem describing the rebellion of the angel Lucifer (Satan), his expulsion from heaven, and the story of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. With Paradise Lost, Milton aims to "justify the ways of God to Man," and his portrayal of the three central characters is psychologically penetrating and sympathetic. It is said Milton developed independently of restoration period influences.

16. Change in Taste (Theatre) • 1670s and 1680s, a gradual shift occurred from heroic to pathetic tragedy • aristocratic macho lifestyle of unremitting sexual intrigue and conquest. • The Earl of Rochester, real-life Restoration rake, courtier and poet, is flatteringly portrayed in Etherege's Man of Mode (1676) as a riotous, witty, intellectual, and sexually irresistible aristocrat, a template for posterity's idea of the glamorous Restoration rake (actually never a very common character in Restoration comedy). • 1690s, the "softer" comedies of William Congreve and John Vanbrugh reflected mutating cultural perceptions and great social change. • After this period Victorians denounced the comedy as too indecent for the stage

17. Effects of the restoration on English Law Language • It is this period that seems to lay the main ground work to established English law. Still even today the English law language seems tied to this period in terminology and usage. I.e. legal jargon is often restoration jargon, since that is where the core of English written law comes from. As that is when it was translated. Before this period law is Latin scrolls locked in the tower of London. • Law was consistently being advanced in English rather than previous convention and authority by title or rank. It is all repercussions of the Charles I’s trial, giving the common people power to rule the Monarch, rather than the monarch being the rule of the people. One step greater than the Barons having say, the lords were even ignored. Meaning tradition out temporary desire in. • 1679 Habeas Corpus Act

18. RESTORATION POETRY • Poets expressed their points of view by public or formally disguised poetic forms, such as odes, pastoral poetry, and ariel verse. • devaluation of individual sentiment and psychology in favor of public utterance and philosophy. • preferred rhyme scheme heroic couplets abab • ‘THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF COUPLETS • MILITARY RULE CALLED PEACE AND HEAVEN • BUT THIS PERIOD HAD MUCH BLOODLET • RELIGION FIRED WAR MORSEL’s BREAD TO leaven’ A verse by William Ashley • Rhymingcouplets in iambic pentameter use by Dryden and Alexander Pope. • Happy the man, whose wish and careA few paternal acres bound,Content to breathe his native airIn his own ground.(from "Ode on Solitude" by Alexander Pope) • After 1672 and Samuel Butler's Hudibras, iambic tetrameter couplets with unusual or unexpected rhymes OR "Hudibrastic verse." parody of heroic verse, and it was primarily used for satire.

19. 1670 John Dryden appointed poet laureate and royal histographer • Test Act of 1673, mandating Anglicanism for all office-holders, forced Charles' brother James to resign the post of Lord High Admiral. • "Remember ‘41!" Bishop Burnet, writing of 1679, noted that, among his fellow clergymen, "nothing was so common in their mouths as the year forty-one, in which the late wars began, and which seemed now to be near the being acted over again."

20. POPE • Alexander Pope (1688-1744) • AGE OF POPE (1700-1744) • Continues the literary tradition of the Age of Dryden • satirical attention to what is unfitting and wrong • In London the coffeehouse replaces the Court as a center of cultural interest • social and familiarpoetry, wit, restraint, good taste and the subordination of personal idiosyncrasy to a social norm • main genres: mock-epic topical satire, burlesque, generalised, reflective philosophical lyric; the prevalence of the heroic couplet; • THE AUGUSTAN AGE • The first English professional writer • "Why did I write?... / To help me thro' this long disease, my life." (from Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot)his Catholic faith limited his educational possibilities and excluded him from public officetubercular and crookbacked, Pope strove to achieve perfection and correctness in poetry • Pastorals (written 1704-7, published 1709) admired by friends for the rhetorical niceties of his couplet: antithesis and parallel, pleasing repetitions and syntactic patternings, alliteration and assonance, metrical variations of pause and cadence

21. Pope Continued • Essay on Criticism (1711) Pope's first striking success; reflects the taste of the Augustan ageultimate source: Horace's Ars Poetica; aiming at a synthesis of the most valuable critical precepts since Aristotle to Boileau and Drydenkey concepts: wit, Nature, ancients, rules, genious • First follow Nature, and your judgement frameBy her just standard, which is all the same:Unerring Nature, still divinely bright,One clear, unchang'd and universal light......wit and judgement are often at strifeTho' meant each other's aid, like man and wife;'Tis more to guide, than spur the Muse's steedRestrain her fury, than provoke his speed....Those rules of old discover'd, not devis'd,Are Nature still, but Nature methodiz'd;Nature, like Liberty, is but restrainedBy the same laws, which first herself ordai'd. • simple, conversational language; tone of well-bred ease; imagery drawn from all aspects of contemporary life: military, artistic, sexual, religious

22. 18th century Philosophy • the Age of Enlightenment sought reform/ weaken the Monarchy. The Restoration emphasized rules, reason and logic, in the interest of its subjects: the "enlightened" ordering of society. • The Enlightenment spreads in a tsunami of change through Europe. Scientific innovations and discoveries by the Royal Society, Isaac Newton (1642–1727), the inductive method professed by Francis Bacon (1561–1626), and the empirical philosophy of John Locke (1632–1704), • : natural philosophy of Sir Isaac Newton, fuse of axiomatic proof with physical observation, to predict results in ‘Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica’ • Enlightenment = human reason & natural law. • Satirists emerged with the Age of Enlightenment, an intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th century advocating rationality. Trends: sentimental benevolence, altruism, feeling for other men, for animals, charity, humanitarianism, indignation at social injustice • notable critics (Joseph Addison, Richard Steele), satirists (Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift), and economists (Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham). ‘rationalism and order’

23. Philosophy Continued • law separating rules from particulars of behavior or experience • stronger concept of the individual: rights based on ideals other than ancient traditions, or tenures i.e. the nobility • Instead the philosopher kings of the age defined good traits. John Locke wrote his Two Treatises on Government • The Enlightenment was suffused with two competing strains. One was characterized by an intense spirituality, and faith in religion and the church. In opposition to this, there was a growing streak of anti-clericalism which mocked the perceived distance between the supposed ideals of the church, and the practice of priests • Deism emerged as a dominant religious philosophy of the period, ideas about God as the Great Planner or Watchmaker who assembles the universe, winds it up, and then leaves it ticking away on its own without interfering in its day-to-day operations. • Thomas Jefferson was a deist. morality as reason and logic. Locke - Essay Concerning Human Understanding ‘IMPERICISM’ • 1677 Spinoza - Ethics

24. Essay on Man • Essay on Man (1732-34) philosophical poem, fragment of a planned majestic survey of human nature, society and moralscompound of diverse elements: Renaissance Platonism, Newtonian science, traditional theodicyunderlying and unifying the poem is the Great Chain of Being, the vast, perfectly ordered, all-inclusive hierarchy of created things, rising from inanimate matter through insects to man, angels an God; Man's fixed place in the Chain of Being is viewed in a series of perspectives • "In spite of Pride, in erring Reason's spite / One truth is clear, "Whatever is, is Right."

25. 1688 The Glorious Revolution • This "Glorious Revolution" of 1688 traditionally marks the end of a period during which every aspect of British politics, government, finance and law had suffered revolutionary changes. • literature and the arts make decisive break with the styles of the past, enter reasoned physicalism and the enlightenment. 1690 Battle of the Boyne 1(Glorious Revolution)

26. PRESS Part 1 • During the period of the Licensing Act (1662-94), an official surveyor of the press was given the sole privilege of publishing newspapers. • The Revolution of 1688 produced a return to more permissive publishing laws and the first provincial presses were set up, starting with the Worcester Post Man (1690) and Scotland’s Edinburgh Gazette (1699 • National Post was centered at Fleet Street in London. • Lloyd's News (1696) was issued from Lloyd's coffeehouse followed by Lloyd's List and Shipping Gazette (from 1734) a business paper. • By the 1700’s the british postal system made daily publication practical a single sheet page, the Daily Courant (1702-35) based on corantos (early newspapers ? Fashion) • Review (1704-13), produced by Daniel Defoe, in which the writer's opinion on current political topics was given the first editorial. Defoe was imprisoned, in 1702, for his pamphlet "The Shortest Way with Dissenters," but many eminent British writers were being attracted to the newspapers. • Henry Muddiman the "journalist" edited the London Gazette (from 1666).

27. Press Part 2 • John Milton had edited the Mercurius Politicus under Oliver Cromwell, and Sir Richard Steele and Joseph Addison, The Spectator (published daily 1711-12). • The Spectator and The Tatler (triweekly, 1709-11, also written by Steele) are commemorated in the modern magazines of the same name (see below Magazine publishing), • Sales of the popular Spectator sometimes ran as high as 3,000 copies, and already this circulation level was enough to attract advertising. • An excise duty on advertisements was introduced by the Stamp Act (1712), said to be aimed at curbing the power of the press. one penny on a whole sheet • the cover price of The Spectator, the tax killed the paper. • The Daily Advertiser (1730-1807), offered advertising space (CLASSIFIEDS) • And political pages 1771 when proceedings of Parliament were allowed to be printed. • There was an attempt to bar the press but political reformers such as John Wilkes (with the North Briton, 1762) curbed the attempts. • Starting Whig and Tory newspapers or the parties bribed journalists with occasional handouts and annual stipends. • Morning Post (1772), The Times (from 1788, but started as the Daily Universal Register in 1785), and The Observer (1791), each of which is still published (although the Morning Post was later merged with the Daily Telegraph). • Censorship continued in the guise of frequent libel prosecutions.

28. Neoclassicism the Augustan age • discovery of the ruins of the ancient cities Herculaneum (1709) and Pompeii (1748) A revival of classical aesthetics and forms, especially: ideals of reason, form, and restraint • admiration for the classical world extended to poetry, where poets aimed for polished high style of the Roman ideal • , although existing previously in Shakespeare’s Roman Play’s. ‘Julius Caesar and the The Tragedy of Antony, and Cleopatra ‘ • translation of imitated Greek and Latin verse. ‘Contra Annus Mirabilis’ • Dryden translated all the known works of Virgil • Pope produced versions of the two Homeric epics. Horace and Juvenal • Horace by John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester • Juvenal in Samuel Johnson's ‘Vanity of Human Wishes’. DEFINITION: "neoclassicism" in each art implies a particular canon of "classic" models. a natural expression of a culture at past periods of time. • diesism emergred and leads to American and French Reveloutions which occur at end of period. • More a catholic mentality of perfection rather then more protestant values of faith

29. English 18th Cent. Neoclassicism • decorum, concision, restraint, balance, reason, regularity, wit • public and political concerns, social responsibility, manners & morals; "The proper study of mankind is Man" (Pope) natural world serves as an image of or analogy for human concerns deals with polite, urbane society, upper and middle classes; the natural world serves as an image of or analogy for human concerns • Values absolute, public, rational, humanist • The poet urbane, witty, gentlemanly, moral, incisive; good sense, good humour, learning, social concern, capable of moral outrage • Setting urban; the rural is seen either as pastoral (idealized) or as ignorant and unmannerly • Allusion and history Classical Greece and, especially, Augustan Rome, also the Bible • Language "Language is the dress of thought" (Pope); attention to decorum, propriety, allusion • 'Nature'(Most qualities of poetry and senses of what constitutes moral life follow upon the age's understanding of Nature.) Nature is the 'order of things', the "clear, unchanged and universal light" (Pope); it is marked by harmony, rationality and order, expressed descriptively and emotionally as well as intellectually. The 'real' world as we experience and understand it models a divinely sanctioned, hierarchical order. Poetry is public, ordered, intellectual; it values right reason, teaching, civic concern. • Key texts Ben Johnson, "To Penshurst"

30. Neoclassicism Poetry • Neo-Classicism meant that poets attempted adaptations of Classical meters • Augustan period would call "decorum": the fitness of form to subject (q.v. Dryden Epic). It is the same struggle that Davenant faced in his Gondibert. Dryden's solution was a closed couplet in iambic pentameter that would have a minimum of enjambment. This form was called the "heroic couplet," because it was suitable for heroic subjects. Additionally, the age also developed the mock-heroic couplet.. Jonathan Swift would use the Hudibrastic form almost exclusively for his poetry.

31. English Language Authorities 1700-1760 • 1702 • John KerseyA New English Dictionary28,000 words (70 years)1704 • John HarrisLexicon Technicum (or An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences ...) 1706 • John Kersey, ed.Philips's New World of English Words38,000 words1721 • Nathan BaileyAn Universal Etymological English Dictionary40,000 words (30 editions 1721-1802), etymology, word stress (1740)1727 • Nathan BaileyVolume IIsupplementary volume: 2 parts, 1731 ed.1728 • Ephraim ChambersCyclopaedia (or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences) 1730 • Nathan BaileyDictionarium Britannicum48,000 words1747 • Samuel JohnsonPlan of a Dictionary of the English Language"to fix the language"1749 • Benjamin MartinLingua Britannica Reformata 1755 • Samuel JohnsonDictionary40,000 words (2 vls.)1755 • Scott et al. eds.A New Universal English Dictionary

32. Queen Anne 1707 • Joseph Addison (1711); Jonathan Swift (1712), Queen Anne supported idea of English and the royal society but died in 1714. • Francois et lingua latina are vouge for the learn’d circum this period.

33. Women Writers • During the period of the restoration, it was a period of firsts for women authors as they gain grains of ‘independence and trust the for instance the last witch was convicted in England in 1712. Women poets were scarce only two well known in the first decade of the new century. Women poets gained some acceptance around the 1730s and by the 1790’s there wer eover thirty. Katherine Phillips • And so the Sun if it arise Half so glorious as his Eyes,Like this Infant, takes a shrowd,Buried in a morning Cloud.         (Epitaph on her Son H. P., 19-22) • Aphra Behn. Before becoming a professional writer, Aphra Behn was a professional spy for England, code-named "Astrea" or Agent 160. • OTHERS: Anne Finch, Countess of Winchilsea, Elizabeth Thomas, Lady Mary Wortley Montague, Mary Leapor, Susanna Blamire and Hannah More.

34. 1760-1780 GRAMAR • Robert Lowth's A Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762), most prominent of 18th c. grammars, authoritarian tone • Joseph Priestly's The Rudiments of English Grammar (1761), more liberal attitude

35. English Language Authorities 1760-1780 James BuchananLinguae Britannicae 1764 • William JohnstonPronouncing and Spelling Dictionary 1764 • John EntickSpelling Dictionary 1773 • William KenrickA New Dictionary of the English Language 1780 • Thomas Sheridan A General Dictionary of the English Language"respelled"

36. Theatre 1700-1780 • 1700’s the commoner merchant class on the rise • less witfull material was produced • lull of general interest in theatre. • Words replaced by spectacle or visual effects • lull turned to distaste for satirical comedy due to corruption envisaged by Sir Robert Walpole and some puritans • One theatre existed for gentry and nobility and another for the commons. • 1737 the divide in theatre led Licensing Act of 1737 • The act granted two patent houses immense control over English theatre. • This act lumped non court authorized actors in with vagrants and rouges. This must have been a tremendous blow to the actors of the time. Some exaples are William Hogarth's The bad taste of the town and pantomimes of John Rich

37. Religion • John Toland (1670-1722) a deist examined religion. It is individuals such as Toland that spark difference which leads to the later revolutions. • There was a great religious divide between various sects predominantly Catholics and Protestants, with various influences including the Church of England, the Anglicans. • Religious issues caused migration and civil war. Catholics were second class to Anglicans due to the Anglicans being the ones that installed Charles II back on the throne creating obligations to the church of England over other religions. • Methodist practice developed and ‘The Great Awakening’ in England, Wales, Scotland and America in the 1730’s and 1740’s stirred belief of religious experience as the "new birth," inspired by the preaching of the Word. • Awakening supporters -Presbyterians, Baptists and Methodists—became the largest denominations in America • Anglicans, Quakers, and Congregationalists--were left behind in size, thus setting the stage.

39. Romantic Revolutions • By the mid 1700’s the Neoclassical period & Augustan Age close with the American and French Revolutions • GEORGE III (r. 1760-1820), independence of American colonies 1783, beginning of industrial revolution, eventual insanity of king • THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS and Growth of Romanticism   • Starting with the Republic and Ending with ‘THE REPUBLIC’ AMERICA • AMERICA DID A LOT TO MODERNIZE LINGUA BRITANICA ENGLISH, CANADA IS NOT AS CURRENT AS AMERICANS MISSING OUT ON THE NEW AMERICAN DICTIONARIES CHANGES. Nite Night etc..

40. Websites Visited • http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12700b.htm • http://prayerfoundation.org/christian_history_timeline_2.htm • www.bbc.co.uk/history/timelines/ england/stu_restoration.shtml • A Dictionary of Sensibility http://www.engl.virginia.edu/~enec981/dictionary/g_intro.html • Romantic Circles http://www.rc.umd.edu/ • Romanticism on the Net: an International Refereed Electronic Journal http://users.ox.ac.uk/~scat0385/ • A Selective Bibliography of Romantic Poetry and Prose http://www.humanities.mcmaster.ca/~halmin/classes/biblio.html • Romantic Chronology http://english.ucsb.edu:591/rchrono/ • Internet Library of Early Journals, a digital library of 18th and 19th Century Journals http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/ilej/ • http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/lexicography/b_history.html • http://www.wordorigins.org/histeng.htm#early • http://www.bartleby.com/218/0500.html • http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/09/euwb/ht09euwb.htm • http://www.clt.astate.edu/dchappel/Online%20World%20Lit%20II%20Course/introduction_to_neoclassical_literature.htm • http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/1F95/romclas.html • http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/timeline.html

41. Websites Visited • http://mockingbird.creighton.edu/english/worldlit/teaching/upperdiv/emodeng1.htm • http://www.uh.edu/engines/romanticism/ • http://www.putlearningfirst.com/language/04change/dates.html • http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/timelines/england/geo_agrarian_industrial.shtml • http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/guide17/part08x.html • http://people.stu.ca/~hunt/18c/33360102/finlwebs/GSNXL/912374.htm • http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc17.htm • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration_literature • http://www.lian.com/TANAKA/comhosei/NPinEB.htm • http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/journals/EH/EH36/browner1.html • http://www.todayinliterature.com/ • 10/28/99 - http://www.robertburns.org/encyclopedia/index-a.html • http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Poetry/Elegy.htm • http://www.askoxford.com/asktheexperts/faq/aboutwords/gry • Robert Burns Country - The ultimate Robert Burns reference work, with full text indexed and searchable online. • 10/28/99 - http://anvil.nome.alaska.edu/users/students/nssjd/18thcentury.html18th Century - The "eighteenth century" actually begins during the 17th century, in 1660. This is the year of Restoration, or the reinstatement of a king, Charles II, after a period without a monarch, and marks a change in society as well, a move away from Puritan rule.

42. Bibliography page 2 • Dryden, John (originally published in 1667). An Account of the Ensuing Poem, prefixed to Annus Mirabilis, from Project Gutenberg. Prepared from The Poetical Works of John Dryden (1855), ed. George Gilfillan, vol. 1. Retrieved June 18, 2005. • Dryden, John (originally published in 1670). Of Heroic Plays, an Essay (The preface to The Conquest of Granada), in The Works of John Dryden, Volume 04 (of 18) from Project Gutenberg. Prepared from Walter Scott's edition. Retrieved June 18, 2005. • Dryden, John. Discourses on Satire and Epic Poetry, from Project Gutenberg, prepared from the 1888 Cassell & Company edition. This volume contains "A Discourse on the Original and Progress of Satire", prefixed to The Satires of Juvenal, Translated (1692) and "A Discourse on Epic Poetry", prefixed to the translation of Virgil's Aeneid (1697). Retrieved June 18, 2005. • Holman, C. Hugh and Harmon, William (eds.) (1986). A Handbook to Literature. New York: Macmillan Publishing. • Howe, Elizabeth (1992). The First English Actresses: Women and Drama 1660–1700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Hume, Robert D. (1976). The Development of English Drama in the Late Seventeenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

43. Bibliography page 3 • Hunt, Leigh (ed.) (1840). The Dramatic Works of Wycherley, Congreve, Vanbrugh and Farquhar. • Porter, Roy (2000). The Creation of the Modern World. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-32268-8 • Roots, Ivan (1966). The Great Rebellion 1642–1660. London: Sutton & Sutton. • Rosen, Stanley (1989). The Ancients and the Moderns: Rethinking Modernity. Yale UP. • Sloane, Eugene H. Robert Gould: seventeenth century satirist. Philadelphia: U Pennsylvania Press, 1940. • Tillotson, Geoffrey and Fussell, Paul (eds.) (1969). Eighteenth-Century English Literature. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Jovanovich. • Todd, Janet (2000). The Secret Life of Aphra Behn. London: Pandora Press. • Ward, A. W, & Trent, W. P. et al. (1907–21). "The Age of Dryden", in The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons. Retrieved June 11, 2005.