CHAPTER EIGHT

1. CHAPTER EIGHT UNOBTRUSIVE MEASURES, SECONDARY ANALYSIS, AND THE USES OF OFFICIAL STATISTICS

2. Unobtrusive Measures • Secretive or nonreactive means of gathering data. • Subjects are unaware they are being studied, i.e., surveillance. • This strategy tends to not elicit artificial behavior or “stooge effects.”

3. Types of Unobtrusive Measures: • Physical trace analysis • Archival, existing or available data, and autobiographies • Simple observation • Disguised observation • Simulation

4. Physical Trace Analysis • Reconstruction of previous human interaction – after the fact. • Similar to a detective looking for clues or circumstantial evidence. • Examples: Vandalism rates and graffiti as indicators of social environmental atmospheres and subcultures.

5. Available Data and Archives • Secondary Analysis: reanalysis of data gathered for other purposes. Includes both primary data resources, i.e., UCR, and secondary data sources, i.e., a research study that previously used UCR data. Examples: Sutherland’s White Collar Crime and Clinard and Yeager’s Illegal Corporate Behavior and Corporate Crime. • Personal Documents and Biographies: letters, diary method (individuals maintain a record of activities for a specified period of time), and memoirs, i.e., The Valachi Papers, or, Monster: The Autobiography of an I.A. Gang Member.

6. Available Data and ArchivesCont’d • Measuring hidden populations: i.e., arrest rates re: estimating juvenile recidivism or, the IRS - estimating unreported income • Historical and archival data: a method used to chronicle past events, however, caution must be given to the original methodology and rationale under which the original data was collected.

7. Available Data and ArchivesCont’d • Content Analysis:systematic analysis and selective classification of the contents of mass communication. Its usefulness is measured by its replicability. Computer software exists to organize word search capabilities for scanned documents and text files which supports the analysis of qualitative data. • Meta-analysis: summarizing results across multiple studies. Emphasis is on quantification, i.e., analysis of hot spots in criminal justice (map and identify “hot spots” – provides the ability to measure concentration of criminal events over time). Also, a meta-analysis by Gottfredson and Hirschi’s using the “general theory of crime” found support for their proposition that low self-control increases involvement in crime. Meta-analysis is not used often in criminal justice research.

8. Sources of Existing DataExamples Include: • Uniform Crime Reports (UCR). • National Crime Victimization Studies (NCVS). • National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) (BJS). • Offender-Based Transaction Statistics (OBTS) (BJS). • National Archive of Criminal Justice Data (NACJD) (BJS). • International Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR) (BJS).

9. Discussion Discuss how the Blocks in Exhibit 8.2 utilized existing data in order to investigate gangs in Chicago. In other words, Explain the methodology.

10. Observation • A strategy in which the analyst minimizes interaction with the subjects to carefully record and examine their behavior. This may take the form of laboratory observations or more “naturalistic” field observations. • Ethical considerations, i.e., “Chicago jury study.” • Example: Stewart’s (1979) “Defendant’s Attractiveness as a Factor Outcome of Criminal Trials.”

11. Disguised Observation • A strategy in which the researcher covertly enters the research scene without the knowledge or permission of the subjects or group, i.e., Candid Camera. Researchers often pose as a member of the group, i.e., a watch queen (Humphreys, 1970); a mental patient (Caudill et al., 1952); and thieves and victims (Stewart and Cannon, 1977). • Use of confederates or accomplices who facilitate the desired activity to be observed. • This strategy can be enhanced by videotaping, photography and other mechanical aids for data gathering.

12. Simulation • A strategy in which attempts are made to imitate more complex realities by means of games or controlled experiments or computer models. “A situation or game that attempts to mimic, or imitate, key features of reality.” • Examples include Zimabardo’s “Simulated Prison Study,” and Milgram’s “Obedience to Authority” experiments. Also, virtual reality computer simulations may be used in courtrooms. • Both disguised observations and simulation strategies include debriefing sessions in which the true purpose of the deception are explained to the subjects and any anxiety introduced is hopefully curtailed.

13. Advantages of Unobtrusive Measures • Nonreactivity, i.e., more natural • Avoids overreliance on verbal descriptions by respondents • Mechanical aids, i.e., videotapes - recording hardware increases accuracy • Inconspicuous and grants anonymity • Archival data allows the study of a phenomena over time – quickly and inexpensively • Behavior can be observed first hand which can be superior to survey claims

14. Disadvantages of Unobtrusive Measures • Ethical issues - privacy invasion • Researchers have no right to confidentiality or privileged communication • Subjects may be atypical and therefore not generalizable • Time consuming • Observer bias • Official data is collected for agency purposes and therefore may not have the degree of accuracy or operationalization the researcher desires.