BECOMING AN ADULT

1. BECOMING AN ADULT Chapter Ten

2. LECTURE OVERVIEW Beginning of Adulthood Physical Health and Development Cognitive Development Personality in Adulthood Personality Disorders

3. INTRODUCTION When does adulthood begin? Do we have a definition? One transition: post-secondary education Changes in cognition

4. WHEN DOES ADULTHOOD BEGIN???

5. TRANSITIONS Hard to define when adulthood occurs In Western Cultures: Role transitions: assuming new responsibilities and duties Age experienced: large individual variation, also large cohort variation

6. Con�t�. Cultural variations in role transitions clearer in other cultures �boys become men�: provide, protect, impregnate �girls become women�: typically menarche rites of passage: marking initiation into adulthood

7. GOING TO COLLEGE 65% of high school graduates in US go to college Average of college student = 29 Returning adult students: over age of 25 implies have reached adulthood problem solvers, self-directed, pragmatic have relevant life experiences

8. PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWS Cognitively: differ from adolescents Drop in risk-taking behaviours Increase in self-control and social compliance From concern with identity to: autonomy and intimacy

9. Con�t�. Intimacy versus Isolation once identity is established: ready to create a shared identity studies support and refute this concept gender differences - afraid of committing to a long-term relationship or might become overly dependent on the partner for his or her identity if have no clear sense of identity- afraid of committing to a long-term relationship or might become overly dependent on the partner for his or her identity if have no clear sense of identity

10. WHEN IS ADULTHOOD? Between age 18 to 25 is a distinct life stage? �thresholders�??? Based on economic/financial situations In 20s: far from an easy life stage Is Britney Spears an adult?

11. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH

12. GROWTH, STRENGTH, ETC. Reach peak height Physical strength peaks in late 20s and 30s Coordination and dexterity Sensory & visual acuity Endurance?? Peaks a little later Hearing declines in late 20s - think Tour de France: best riders in late 20s and early 30s- think Tour de France: best riders in late 20s and early 30s

13. HEALTH Fairly healthy during this period of life Death from disease is rare Leading causes of death? accidents Gender and ethnic differences Men more likely to die than women Men = auto accidents; Women = cancer African American, Latino > European American European American < Asian and Pacific Islanders

14. LIFESTYLE FACTORS Smoking: Single biggest contributor to health problems Half of all cancers are related to smoking Danger of second hand smoke Large relapse rate when quitting But.. quitting has enormous health benefits

15. Con�t�.LIFESTYLE FACTORS Drinking Alcohol > 70% drank alcohol in last month Total consumption of alcohol is declining Binge drinking: more troublesome 1/13 adults are alcoholics or abuse alcohol More men than women Highest among younger adults ADDICTION!

16. THEORIES OF ADDICTION 1. Physical dependence (internal need) 2. Positive incentive theory (anticipated effects) * CAN WE BE ADDICTED TO THINGS OTHER THAN DRUGS?

17. BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY 1. Positive reinforcement of drug 2. Stimuli conditioned to drug effects 3. Cues effects of the drug 4. Aversive consequences of taking the drug

18. ADDICTION/DEPENDENCE DSM-IV substance dependence: 3 of following in 12 month period: tolerance withdrawal symptoms increasing doses unsuccessful effort to cut down intake much time spent obtaining or using the drug interference with social, occupation, or recreational activities continued use despite recognition of problems

19. ADDICTIVE DRUGS Self-administered: alcohol amphetamine barbituates caffeine cocaine nicotine opiates procaine* phenylcyclidine (PCP) THC Not self-administered: imipramine mescaline* phenothiazines scopolamine

20. TOLERANCE & SENSITIZATION Tolerance: decreased state of sensitivity to a drug resulting from exposure Sensitization: increased state of sensitivity to a drug resulting from exposure 2 ways to demonstrate: 1. Given dose has less/more effect 2. Takes more/less drug to have an effect * shift in dose response curve

21. TOLERANCE.. con�t �cross tolerance� can occur for some effects and not others adaptive changes: homeostasis metabolic tolerance: reduces amount getting to sites of action functional tolerance: changes the reactivity of sites of action

22. WITHDRAWAL & DEPENDENCE sudden elimination of drug: withdrawal symptoms almost always opposite of initial effects of drug signs of physical dependence * not all physical: learning component as well

23. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DRUG ACTION

25. BASIC DRUG ACTION Influence subjective experience & behaviour blood stream carries drug to CNS blood-brain barrier (BBB) Actions: diffusely bind to specific receptors influence synthesis, transport, release, or deactivation of NTs activate postsynaptic receptors

26. PRINCIPLE PROCESSES 1. Route of administration 2. Absorption and distribution 3. Binding 4. Inactivation 5. Excretion

27. ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION Determines how much drug reaches its site of action and how quickly the drug effect occurs 1. Intravenous injection 2. Intramuscular injection 3. Subcutaneous administration: injection or pellet 4. Intraperitoneal injection 5. Oral administration 6. Sublingual administration 7. Inhalation 8. Topical Application 9. Intracranial Administration

28. COMMON NEURAL MECHANISM? different sites of action final common pathway? reinforcing effects: addictive increased DA overflow in NAcc other NTs? circuit model: incorporates many areas and NTs

29. REINFORCEMENT Increase the effect of dopamine in the mesolimbic system (VTA ? NAcc) all reinforcers increase release of DA in the NAcc DA from NAcc: reinforcing stimulation to VTA Stimulation Experiment

32. DOPAMINE & REWARD originally thought to increase �pleasure� DA not critical for reinforcement once task is learned: neural substrate for novelty or reward expectation? DA is involved in many of the aspects (ie. effects, chronic problems, etc.) of drug reward and addiction

33. Con�t�. intracranial stimulation: of substantia nigra and VTA increase responding highest responding in areas with highest DA neurons DA agonists increase & DA antagonists decrease lesions disrupt conditioned place preference

34. CLASSES OF DRUGS CNS depressants alcohol, hypnotics (barbituates), anxiolytics CNS stimulants amphetamine, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, Ritalin, weight-loss products Opiates heroin, morphine, methadone, prescription pain killers

35. Con�t... Cannabinoids marijuanan, hashish Hallucinogens LSD, mescaline, psilocybin Others PCP

36. NUTRITION Affects mental, emotional, and physical well-being Linked to cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, anemia, and digestive disorders Requirements and eating habits change across life span Differences in metabolism

37. SOCIAL, GENDER, & ETHNIC ISSUES Social factors: SES and education Gender: not clear women do live longer Ethnic Group: inner city = poorest health racism, poverty = stress

38. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

39. HOW IS INTELLIGENCE VIEWED IN ADULTS? Multidimensional: like theories? Remember: Gardner, Sternberg, etc.

40. Con�t�. Hierarchical View of Intelligence general and specific components three levels of intelligence G = general intelligence (8 broad categories) This is a compromise between two views of intelligence: general vs. distinct abilities Critics: ignores research and theory on cognitive developmentthree levels of intelligence G = general intelligence (8 broad categories) This is a compromise between two views of intelligence: general vs. distinct abilities Critics: ignores research and theory on cognitive development

41. Con�t�. Fluid: sequential and quantitative reasoning, induction Crystallized: language General memory & learning: memory span, associative memory Broad visual: visualization, spatial relations, closure speed

42. Con�t�. Broad auditory: speech sound discrimination, general sound discrimination Broad retrieval: creativity, ideational fluency, naming facility Broad cognitive speediness: rate of test taking, numerical facility, perceptual speed Processing speed: simple reaction time, choice reaction time, semantic processing speed

43. Con�t�. Gardner�s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic Existential more recent theory: from perspective of Piaget�s and information-processing theories Much broader view of intelligence: most ambitious is Gardner�s theory Rather than basing this on intelligence tests, he drew on research in childhood development, studies of brain-damage, and studies of the exceptionally talented Linguistic: knowing the meaning of words, ability to use words to understand new ideas, and using language to convey ideas Logical-mathematical: understanding relations that exist among objects, actions, and ideas; logical and mathematical operations Spatial: perceiving objects accurately; imagining appearance of objects before and after transformations Musical: comprehending and producing sounds that vary in pitch, rhythm, and emotional tone Bodily-kinesthetic: using one�s body Interpersonal: identifying different moods, feelings, motivations, and intentions in others Intrapersonal: understanding own emotions, strengths, and weaknesses Naturalistic: recognizing and distinguishing among members of groups (species) and describing relations between groups Existential: considering �ultimate� issues (ie. purpose of life, nature of death) more recent theory: from perspective of Piaget�s and information-processing theories Much broader view of intelligence: most ambitious is Gardner�s theory Rather than basing this on intelligence tests, he drew on research in childhood development, studies of brain-damage, and studies of the exceptionally talented Linguistic: knowing the meaning of words, ability to use words to understand new ideas, and using language to convey ideas Logical-mathematical: understanding relations that exist among objects, actions, and ideas; logical and mathematical operations Spatial: perceiving objects accurately; imagining appearance of objects before and after transformations Musical: comprehending and producing sounds that vary in pitch, rhythm, and emotional tone Bodily-kinesthetic: using one�s body Interpersonal: identifying different moods, feelings, motivations, and intentions in others Intrapersonal: understanding own emotions, strengths, and weaknesses Naturalistic: recognizing and distinguishing among members of groups (species) and describing relations between groups Existential: considering �ultimate� issues (ie. purpose of life, nature of death)

44. Con�t�. Gardner�s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-mathematical Spatial Psychometric theories linguistic develops before others each intelligence is regulated to an area of the brain musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential are unique to this theory How did he reach this theory of different intelligences? Developmental differences: linguistic develops much earlier Each intelligence is regulated by different areas of the brain (studies of brain-damage) Each intelligence has special cases of talented individuals: SAVANTS (individuals with mental retardation who are extremely intelligent in one domain) musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential are unique to this theory How did he reach this theory of different intelligences? Developmental differences: linguistic develops much earlier Each intelligence is regulated by different areas of the brain (studies of brain-damage) Each intelligence has special cases of talented individuals: SAVANTS (individuals with mental retardation who are extremely intelligent in one domain)

45. Con�t�. Other Intelligence Theories Social Cognitive Flexibility - skill in solving social problems with relevant social knowledge Sternberg�s Triarchic Theory componential subtheory experiential subtheory contextual subtheory social cognitive flexibility: an aspect of interpersonal intelligence; studied by presenting different scenarios to adolescents; adolescents who understood the different interpretations to these scenarios may not more skilled verbally or logically, but they were more competent socially and were less likely to have social problems Sternberg�s Theory Componential subtheory: intelligence depends on basic cognitive processes called COMPONENTS (different imformation processing skills, ex. monitoring) Experiential subtheory: intelligence is revealed in both novel and familiar tasks; for novel tasks, intelligence is associated with ability to apply existing knowledge to a new situation; for familiar tasks is associated with automatic processing (using few mental resources) Contextual subtheory: intelligent behaviour that involves skillfully adapting to an environment; intelligence is always partly defined by an environment or cultural context UNDERSCORING CULTURAL PROBLEMS IN INTELLIGENCE TESTSsocial cognitive flexibility: an aspect of interpersonal intelligence; studied by presenting different scenarios to adolescents; adolescents who understood the different interpretations to these scenarios may not more skilled verbally or logically, but they were more competent socially and were less likely to have social problems Sternberg�s Theory Componential subtheory: intelligence depends on basic cognitive processes called COMPONENTS (different imformation processing skills, ex. monitoring) Experiential subtheory: intelligence is revealed in both novel and familiar tasks; for novel tasks, intelligence is associated with ability to apply existing knowledge to a new situation; for familiar tasks is associated with automatic processing (using few mental resources) Contextual subtheory: intelligent behaviour that involves skillfully adapting to an environment; intelligence is always partly defined by an environment or cultural context UNDERSCORING CULTURAL PROBLEMS IN INTELLIGENCE TESTS

46. HOW IS INTELLIGENCE VIEWED IN ADULTS? Multidimensional: like theories? Remember: Gardner, Sternberg, etc. Others�.

47. Con�t�. Life-span perspective Mutlidirectionality Interindividual variability Plasticity

48. WHAT HAPPENS? Formal testing vs. Assessing practical skills Primary Abilities number, word fluency, verbal meaning, inductive reasoning, spatial orientation improve until early 40s then slowly decline

49. Con�t�. How do we reduce the decline?? Absence of chronic disease Good living environment Cognitively active Flexible personality style Married to someone of high cognitive status Satisfied with one�s achievements

50. Con�t�. Secondary Abilities ex. fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence somewhat based on each other fluid declines while crystallized improves harder to learn with age, but more knowledge

51. Con�t�. Beyond Formal Operations? Thought process is different in adulthood considering situational, contextual issues Postformal Thought truth can vary across situations

52. Con�t�. Stages of Reflective Judgement Absolute truth Truth via authority Temporary uncertainty Justified by reference, but idiosyncratic Contextual and subjective Personally constructed Probabilities on evidence

53. Con�t�. Stages of Reflective Judgement� Optimal level of development Skill acquisition Other theories: Absolutist, Relativistic, Dialectical

54. Con�t�. Adult thinking: integrating emotion and logic Adolescents: too much emotion Not so much logic as emotional and pragmatic ex. resolving relationship difficulties

55. STEREOTYPES IN ADULTS Social knowledge structures and social beliefs Stereotypes: organized prior knowledge not always negative! overlearned, so spontaneously activated? implicit stereotypes stereotype threat

56. Con�t�. Implicit Social Beliefs content, strength, likelihood of automatic activiation Age differences Situational differences

57. PERSONALITY

58. CREATING SCENARIOS Life-span construct: past, present, future identity, values, society Scenario: expectations Social clock: biological clock? Life story: past events Autobiographical memories assimilation and accomodation

60. POSSIBLE SELVES Projecting into future: possibilities Age differences? fewer domains with age but, more behaviors to support possible selves Younger: family issues Middle: personal issues Older: family issues, but different focus Oldest: personal issues

61. SELF-CONCEPT Incorporating scenario/life story into sense of self Little change in self-concept with age earlier self-concept is predictive Ethnic group/cultural attachment

62. PERSONAL CONTROL BELIEFS Degree of control over situations High versus low sense of control Important for personality and memory 4 types: Within oneself Over oneself Over environment From the environment

63. Con�t�. Primary control: affecting external world based on biological factors Secondary control: behaviour or cognition aimed at internal world Less primary and more secondary with age

64. PERSONALITY AND ITS DISORDERS

65. PERSONALITY WHAT IS PERSONALITY? Relative stability from childhood temperament Depends on circumstances Whether negative or positive trait Whether trait will be expressed What is personality? pattern of behavior that each person develops as a way of coping with his/her traits and abilities, social environment and events experienced Healthy pattern: flexible way to cope with challenges and demands presented by our environmentsWhat is personality? pattern of behavior that each person develops as a way of coping with his/her traits and abilities, social environment and events experienced Healthy pattern: flexible way to cope with challenges and demands presented by our environments

66. Con�t�. 5 factor model: Neuroticism Extraversion Openness to Experience Agreeableness Conscientiousness * all along continuums Neuroticism: individual prone to psychological distress, unrealistic ideas, excessive cravings or urges, and maladaptive coping responses; emotional instability HIGH: worrying, nervous, emotional, insecure, inadequate, hypochondriac LOW: calm, relaxed, unemotional, hardy, secure, self-satisfied 2. Extraversion: assesses quantity and intensity of interpersonal interactions, activity level, need for stimulation, capacity for joy, expressing positive emotions HIGH: sociable, active, talkative, person-oriented, optimistic, fun-loving, affectionate LOW: reserved, sober, unexuberant, aloof, task-oriented, retiring, quiet 3. Openness to Experience: assesses proactive seeking and appreciation of experience for its own sake, toleration for and exploration of the unfamiliar HIGH: curious, broad interests, creative, original, imaginative, untraditional LOW: conventional, down-to-earth, narrow interests, unartistic, unanalytical 4. Agreeableness: assesses the quality of one�s interpersonal orientation along a continuum from compassion to antagonism in thoughts, feelings, and actions, willingness to cooperate, empathize with others HIGH: soft-hearted, good natured, trusting, helpful, forgiving, gullibile, straight forward LOW: cynical, rude, suspicious, uncooperative, vengeful, ruthless, irritable, manipulative 5. Conscientiousness: assesses the individual�s degree of organization, contrasts dependable, fastidious people with those who are lackadaisical and sloppy HIGH: organized, reliable, hard-working, self-disciplined, punctual, scrupulous, neat, ambitious, persevering LOW: aimless, unreliable, lazy, careless, lax, negligent, weak-willed, hedonisticNeuroticism: individual prone to psychological distress, unrealistic ideas, excessive cravings or urges, and maladaptive coping responses; emotional instability HIGH: worrying, nervous, emotional, insecure, inadequate, hypochondriac LOW: calm, relaxed, unemotional, hardy, secure, self-satisfied 2. Extraversion: assesses quantity and intensity of interpersonal interactions, activity level, need for stimulation, capacity for joy, expressing positive emotions HIGH: sociable, active, talkative, person-oriented, optimistic, fun-loving, affectionate LOW: reserved, sober, unexuberant, aloof, task-oriented, retiring, quiet 3. Openness to Experience: assesses proactive seeking and appreciation of experience for its own sake, toleration for and exploration of the unfamiliar HIGH: curious, broad interests, creative, original, imaginative, untraditional LOW: conventional, down-to-earth, narrow interests, unartistic, unanalytical 4. Agreeableness: assesses the quality of one�s interpersonal orientation along a continuum from compassion to antagonism in thoughts, feelings, and actions, willingness to cooperate, empathize with others HIGH: soft-hearted, good natured, trusting, helpful, forgiving, gullibile, straight forward LOW: cynical, rude, suspicious, uncooperative, vengeful, ruthless, irritable, manipulative 5. Conscientiousness: assesses the individual�s degree of organization, contrasts dependable, fastidious people with those who are lackadaisical and sloppy HIGH: organized, reliable, hard-working, self-disciplined, punctual, scrupulous, neat, ambitious, persevering LOW: aimless, unreliable, lazy, careless, lax, negligent, weak-willed, hedonistic

67. PERSONALITY DISORDERS Generally: Social and occupational disruptions Defined: based on what�s acceptable Hardest to diagnose and hard to treat No distress over symptoms Much co-morbidity among disorders

68. Con�t�. Cluster A: asocial, odd, and/or eccentric Cluster B: flamboyant, dramatic, emotional, and/or erratic Cluster C: anxious, fearful, and/or lack of emotional warmth Cluster A: similar to symptoms found in schizophrenics; traits may precede onset of full-blown psychosis Cluster B: marked difficulties in sustaining interpersonal relationships, unclear why these disorders are clumped together in this cluster Cluster C: preoccupation with rulesCluster A: similar to symptoms found in schizophrenics; traits may precede onset of full-blown psychosis Cluster B: marked difficulties in sustaining interpersonal relationships, unclear why these disorders are clumped together in this cluster Cluster C: preoccupation with rules

69. Con�t�. Cluster A Paranoid: distrust, suspicious, overreact low extraversion, low openness, very low agreeableness Schizoid: restricted range of emotions, social isolation, loners very low extraversion Schizotypal: discomfort with relationships, cognitive & perceptual distortions, peculiar behaviour, bizarre fantasies very high neuroticism, very low extraversion, high openness

70. Con�t�. Cluster B Antisocial: frequent violation of rights of others; impulsive, aggressive, reckless low neuroticism, very low agreeableness and conscientiousness Borderline: instability of relationships, self-image, emotions, and control over impulses very high neuroticism, high extraversion, low agreeableness and conscientiousness Antisocial: begins in childhood or adolescence; persistent failure to perform responsibilities that are associated with occupational and family roles; frequent conflicts with others; irritable, irresponsible Borderline: diffuse category whose essential feature is pervasive pattern of instability of mood and interpersonal relationships; difficult to be alone; form intense, unstable relationships with other people, are often seen as manipulative; opinions of others often vascillate between extremely negative to extremely positive; emotional instability (depression to anger in hours); can�t maintain an image that incorporates their positive and negative feelings; chronic feelings of emptiness and boredom identity disturbance? high rate of depression in these patientsAntisocial: begins in childhood or adolescence; persistent failure to perform responsibilities that are associated with occupational and family roles; frequent conflicts with others; irritable, irresponsible Borderline: diffuse category whose essential feature is pervasive pattern of instability of mood and interpersonal relationships; difficult to be alone; form intense, unstable relationships with other people, are often seen as manipulative; opinions of others often vascillate between extremely negative to extremely positive; emotional instability (depression to anger in hours); can�t maintain an image that incorporates their positive and negative feelings; chronic feelings of emptiness and boredom identity disturbance? high rate of depression in these patients

71. Con�t�. Histronic: excessive emotionality and attention seeking high neuroticism, extraversion, and openness, low conscientiouness Narcissistic: grandiosity, need for admiration, lack of empathy high neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness, very low agreeableness Histronic: self-centred, vain, and demanding; constantly seek approval of others; shallow, may vacillate erratically; react with inappropriate exaggeration Narcissistic: exaggerated sense of importanceHistronic: self-centred, vain, and demanding; constantly seek approval of others; shallow, may vacillate erratically; react with inappropriate exaggeration Narcissistic: exaggerated sense of importance

72. Con�t�. Cluster C Avoidant: social inhibition very high neuroticism and very low extraversion Dependent: excessive need of care very high neuroticism and agreeableness, high extraversion Obsessive-Compulsive: preoccupation with perfection, orderliness high neuroticism, low extraversion and openness, and very high conscientiousness Avoidant: feelings of inadequacy, hypersensitive to negative evaluation Dependent: excessive need to be taken care of; leading to submissive and clinging behavior Obsessive-Compulsive: preoccupation with orderliness and perfection at the expense of flexibilityAvoidant: feelings of inadequacy, hypersensitive to negative evaluation Dependent: excessive need to be taken care of; leading to submissive and clinging behavior Obsessive-Compulsive: preoccupation with orderliness and perfection at the expense of flexibility

73. Con�t�. Much overlap of traits among disorders Prevalence: not clear High among psychiatric patients Role of biology and environment some sort of role of genetics but� since large of role of social aspects high among psychiatric patients being treated for another disorder Not much known, but thought to appear as reaction to environment Possibly it is biology underlying factors such as cognition, impulsivity, aggression, affective instability, and chronic anxiety rather than direct link to disorderhigh among psychiatric patients being treated for another disorder Not much known, but thought to appear as reaction to environment Possibly it is biology underlying factors such as cognition, impulsivity, aggression, affective instability, and chronic anxiety rather than direct link to disorder