Introduction to Educational Research (4th ed.) C. M. Charles/Craig A. Mertler

1. Introduction to Educational Research (4th ed.)C. M. Charles/Craig A. Mertler Chapter 14 Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, & Causal-Comparative Research

2. The (Never-Ending) Search for Causation • Establishing causation among variables : • Produces increased understanding of those variables • Results in the ability to manipulate conditions in order to produce desired changes

3. Experimental Research • Can demonstrate cause-and-effect very convincingly • Very stringent research design requirements • Experimental design requires: • Randomly selected participants who are randomly assigned to groups (experimental and control) • Independent treatment variable that can be applied to the experimental group • Dependent variable that can be measured in all groups

4. Quasi-Experimental Research • Used in place of experimental research when random assignment to groups is not feasible • Otherwise, very similar to true experimental research

5. Causal-Comparative Research • Explores the possibility of cause-and-effect relationships when experimental and quasi-experimental approaches are not feasible • Used when manipulation of the independent variable is not ethical or is not possible

6. Fundamentals of Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research • Cause and effect: • Incorporates a temporal element—the cause is a condition that exists prior to the effect; effect is a condition that occurs after the cause • There exists a “logical connection”—cause-and-effect is demonstrated when manipulation of the independent variable results in differences in the dependent variable (as evidenced by comparing the experimental group to the control group)

7. Fundamentals of Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research (cont’d.) • Random selection and random assignment : • Distinguish between “selection” and “assignment” • Both help to ensure that groups are equivalent and to control for extraneous variables • If you incorporate random selection and random assignment Experimental research • If you incorporate random selection but not random assignment Quasi-experimental research

8. Fundamentals of Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research (cont’d.) • When to use experimental research design : • If you strongly suspect a cause-and-effect relationship exists between two conditions, and • At least randomly assigned group is available to participate, and • The independent variable can be introduced to participants and can be manipulated, and • The resulting dependent variable can be measured for all participants

9. Fundamentals of Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research (cont’d.) • Commonly used experimental design notation : • X1 = treatment group • X2 = control/comparison group • O = observation (pretest, posttest, etc.) • R = random assignment

10. Common Experimental Designs • Single-group pretest-treatment-posttest design: O X O • Technically, a pre-experimental design (only one group; therefore, no random assignment exists) • Overall, a weak design—no control group (for comparison purposes); pretest sensitization; experimenter effects (therefore, cannot be sure about conclusions)

11. Common Experimental Designs (cont’d.) • Two-group treatment-posttest-only design: R X1 O R X2 O • Here, we have random assignment to experimental, control groups • A better design, but still weak—cannot be sure that groups were equivalent to begin with

12. Common Experimental Designs (cont’d.) • Two-group pretest-treatment-posttest design: R O X1 O R O X2 O • A substantially improved design—previously identified errors have been reduced

13. Common Experimental Designs (cont’d.) • Solomon four-group design: R O X1 O R O X2 O R X1 O R X2 O • A much improved design—how?? • One serious drawback—requires twice as many participants

14. Common Experimental Designs (cont’d.) • Factorial designs: R O X1g1 O R O X2g1 O R O X1g2 O R O X2g2 O • Incorporates two or more factors • Enables researcher to detect differential differences (effects apparent only on certain combinations of levels of independent variables)

15. Common Experimental Designs (cont’d.) • Single-participant measurement-treatment-measurement designs: O O O | X O X O | O O O • Purpose is to monitor effects on one subject • Results can be generalized only with great caution

16. Common Quasi-Experimental Designs • Posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups: X1 O X2 O • Uses two groups from same population • Questions must be addressed regarding equivalency of groups prior to introduction of treatment

17. Common Quasi-Experimental Designs (cont’d.) • Pretest-posttest design with nonequivalent groups: O X1 O O X2 O • A stronger design—pretest may be used to establish group equivalency

18. Common Quasi-Experimental Designs (cont’d.) • Time series designs: O O O O X O O O O • Uses a single group of participants • Examines possible changes over time

19. Similarities Between Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research • Cause-and-effect relationship is hypothesized • Participants are randomly selected and randomly assigned (experimental) or randomly selected and nonrandomly assigned (quasi-experimental) • Application of an experimental treatment by researcher • Following the treatment, all participants are measured on the dependent variable • Data are usually quantitative (exception is single-subject designs); analyzed by looking for significant differences on the dependent variable

20. Internal and External Validity • “Validity of research” refers to the degree to which the conclusions are accurate and generalizable • Both experimental and quasi-experimental research are subject to threats to validity • If threats are not controlled for, they may introduce error into the study, which will lead to misleading conclusions

21. Threats to Internal Validity • Internal validity—extent to which differences on the dependent variable are a direct result of the manipulation of the independent variable • Differential selection of participants—participants are not selected/assigned randomly • History—when factors other than treatment can exert influence over the results; problematic over time • Maturation—when changes occur in dependent variable that may be due to natural developmental changes; problematic over time

22. Threats to Internal Validity (cont’d.) • Testing—also known as “pretest sensitization”; pretest may give clues to treatment or posttest and may result in improved posttest scores • Attrition (mortality)—loss of participants

23. Threats to External Validity • External validity—extent to which the results can be generalized to other groups or settings • Population validity—degree of similarity among sample used, population from which it came, and target population • Personological variables—application of findings based on individual differences • Ecological validity—physical or emotional situation or setting that may have been unique to the experiment

24. A Published Example of Experimental Research Meyer, M., Linville, M., and Rees, G. (1993). The development of a positive self-concept in preservice teachers. Action in Teacher Education, 15(1), 30–35.

25. The Nature of Causal-Comparative Research • Conducted to explore possible cause-and-effect relationships • Differs from experimental and quasi-experimental research: • Independent variable is not manipulated • Focuses first on the effect, then tries to determine possible causes (ex post facto) • Questions will remain about the effect following the cause, or vice versa • Other conditions must also be considered as “plausible causes”

26. A Published Example of Causal-Comparative Research Kelly, K. (1993). The relation of gender and academic achievement to career self-efficacy and interests. Gifted Child Quarterly, 37, 59–64.

27. Applying Technology… Web sites covering topics related to experimental, quasi-experimental, and causal-comparative research • Dr. Trochim’s discussion of "Experimental Designs" (http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/desexper.htm) • Dr. Trochim’s discussion of "Two-Group Experimental Designs" (http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/expsimp.htm) • Dr. Trochim’s discussion of "Factorial Designs" (http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/expfact.htm) • Dr. Trochim’s discussion of "Randomized Block Designs" (http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/expblock.htm) • Dr. Trochim’s discussion of "Covariance Designs" (http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/expcov.htm)

28. Applying Technology… More web sites covering topics related to experimental, quasi-experimental, and causal-comparative research • Dr. Trochim’s discussion of "Hybrid Experimental Designs" (http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/exphybrd.htm) • Dr. Trochim’s examination of quasi-experimentation (http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/quasiexp.htm) • Dr. Trochim’s discussion of "The Nonequivalent Control Group Design" (http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/quasnegd.htm) • Dr. Trochim’s discussion of "Other Quasi-Experimental Designs" (http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/quasioth.htm) • Dr. Beckelhimer’s discussion of "Experimental Research" (http://cmhs.cabe.k12.wv.us/~sbeckelh.staff/research/EXPER.HTML) • Dr. Beckelhimer’s discussion of "Quasi-Experimental" (http://cmhs.cabe.k12.wv.us/~sbeckelh.staff/research/QUASI.HTML)