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MEMORY

MEMORY. Once memory has been encoded and stored, we still have to ‘retrieve’ it in order to use it → Using our memories, changes our memories. RETRIEVAL. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is a prime example of retrieval failure, but also how retrieval cues can help us remember

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MEMORY

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  1. MEMORY Once memory has been encoded and stored, we still have to ‘retrieve’ it in order to use it → Using our memories, changes our memories

  2. RETRIEVAL The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is a prime example of retrieval failure, but also how retrieval cues can help us remember → one type of retrieval cue is a context cue: reinstating the context in which a memory occurred

  3. RETRIEVAL → similar to context-dependent memory is state-dependent (mood-congruent) memory: the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood

  4. RETRIEVAL → Priming is considered “memoryless memory”: the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

  5. RETRIEVAL Unlike a computer file that is exactly the same every time it is opened, memory is a reconstructive process → one reason memory gets distorted is that we have schema for certain events: a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

  6. RETRIEVAL Schemas can contribute to the tendency of the misinformation effect on eyewitness testimony: incorporating misleading information into one’s memory → Elizabeth Loftus: switching “smashed into” and “hit” in a question about a car crash changed witness descriptions

  7. RETRIEVAL Along with the misinformation effect, memory reconstruction errors may also stem from: → source monitoring errors (source amnesia): misattributing where a memory came from → destination memory errors: forgetting what we’ve told to whom

  8. RETRIEVAL Overconfidence in one’s memory accuracy can actually indicate inaccuracy: if we are confident we don’t see why we might be wrong, nor look for disconfirming evidence → hindsight bias occurs when you see things you just learned as if you knew them all along (“I knew it was him all along”)

  9. FORGETTING Forgetting can actually serve two important functions: filtering out distracting information and building brain-muscle through the willful act of remembering

  10. FORGETTING → Herman Ebbinghaus pioneered forgetting research by creating a forgetting curve which graphed his retention and forgetting of learned nonsense syllables

  11. FORGETTING Three measures of forgetting/retention include: → recall: retrieval of information learned earlier, w/o any retrieval cues (essays, vocab. quizzes;)) → recognition: identifying from among options items previously learned (multiple choice tests) → relearning: measuring memory by assessing how long it takes to learn material a 2nd time

  12. FORGETTING Why do we forget? Possible answers include: → encoding failure: we never remembered something in the first place, but assumed we did → storage decay: the physiological breakdown of the actual physical memory trace → retrieval failure: using ineffective or inappropriate retrieval cues

  13. FORGETTING Why do we forget? Possible answers include: → both retroactive (new info. obscures old info.) and proactive (old info. obscures new info.) interference → motivated forgetting (repression): Freud’s idea that we bury anxiety-inducing memories in the unconscious

  14. PHYSIOLOGY AND MEMORY Forgetting/memory loss due to cases of amnesia help detail the anatomy of memory → retrograde amnesia involves an inability to retrieve information from one’s past → anterograde amnesia involves an inability to form new memories

  15. PHYSIOLOGY AND MEMORY In 1953 H.M. had surgery to relieve his constant seizures, but in fixing one problem, another was created: he could never again form new memories → doctors had removed his hippocampal region, which is responsible for consolidating (encoding) memories before sending them for storage

  16. PHYSIOLOGY AND MEMORY * In addition, strong emotional/stressful experiences trigger the amygdala to begin the memory forming process (flashbulb memories)

  17. PHYSIOLOGY AND MEMORY Memories exist along neural pathways (localized circuits of neurons in the brain) → long-term potentiation refers to an increase in a neuron’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation when memories are formed

  18. PHYSIOLOGY AND MEMORY Declarative memory ( aka explicit memory) handles facts/general knowledge (semantic memory) and personal experiences (episodic memory) that one can consciously know and “declare” → the hippocampus handles declarative memory, which is why H.M. couldn’t declare anything new

  19. PHYSIOLOGY AND MEMORY Non-declarative memory (aka, implicit) handles memories of actions, conditioned responses, skills etc. which are recalled automatically (w/o effort) → H.M. could form new implicit memories because these are processed by the cerebellum

  20. PHYSIOLOGY AND MEMORY Finally, memory tasks may be divided into two types: → retrospective memory refers to events or learned information from the past → prospective memory refers to remembering to do something in the future

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