Defining Psychology

Defining Psychology • Psychology is the discipline concerned with behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism's physical state, mental state, and external environment ©2002 Prentice Hall

Psychology, Pseudoscience, and Common Sense • Scientific Psychology bears little relationship to "Pop" Psychology • Fortune telling, numerology, graphology, and astronomy are not part of psychology • Psychology is not just a fancy name for common sense • Psychological research often produces findings that contradict popular beliefs ©2002 Prentice Hall

From Speculation to Science: How Psychology Developed • 16th century - Greek words psyche (soul, spirit, or mind) and logos (study of a subject matter) first put together to define a topic of study. • Intellectual roots in physiology and philosophy • Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) University of Leipzig, Germany • Campaigned to make psychology an independent discipline • Established the first laboratory for the study of psychology in 1879 • Defined psychology as the scientific study of conscious experience • Trained psychologists who spread throughout Europe and North America ©2002 Prentice Hall

The Battle of the “Schools” in the U.S.: Structuralism vs. Functionalism • Two intellectual schools of thought developed regarding the science of psychology • Structuralism – led by Edward Titchener • Focused on analyzing consciousness into basic elements • Introspection – careful, systematic observations of one’s own conscious experience • Functionalism – led by William James • Influenced heavily by Darwin • Focused on investigating the function or purpose of consciousness • Led to investigation of mental testing, developmental patterns, and sex differences • May have attracted the first women into the field of psychology ©2002 Prentice Hall

Psychodynamic Perspective (1913) • A psychological approach that emphasizes unconscious dynamics within the individual, such as inner forces, conflicts, or the movement of instinctual energy • Sigmund Freud • Carl Jung • Alfred Adler ©2002 Prentice Hall

John Watson and the Nature-Nurture Debate • Nurture, not nature • “give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief…” • Behaviorist school of thought emphasized the environment • Contributed to rise of animal research • Extremely influential but not unchallenged ©2002 Prentice Hall

Biological/Evolutionary Perspective • A psychological approach that emphasizes bodily events and changes associated with actions, feelings, and thoughts • Biology (1950) James Olds, Roger Sperry, David Hubel, Torsten Wiesel • Evolutionary (1980) David Buss, Martin Daly, Margo Wilson, Leda Cosmides ©2002 Prentice Hall

Behavioral/Learning Perspective (1913) • A psychological approach that emphasizes how the environment and experience affect a person's or animal's actions: It includes behaviorism and social-cognitive learning theories • John B. Watson • Ivan Pavlov • B.F. Skinner ©2002 Prentice Hall

Cognitive Perspective (1950) • A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior • Jean Piaget • Noam Chomsky • Herbert Simon ©2002 Prentice Hall

Psychology Broadens Its Horizons: Increased Interest in Cultural Diversity • Historically, psychology has been largely a Western enterprise • Middle and upper class white males studying middle and upper class white males • More recently, increasing interest in how cultural factors influence behavior • Growing global interdependence • Increased cultural diversity in Western world ©2002 Prentice Hall

Figure 1.3 Increased cultural diversity in the United States. The 1980s and 1990s brought significant changes in the ethnic makeup of the United States. During the 1990s, the nation’s Hispanic population grew by 45% and its Asian American population grew by 49%, while the white population increased by only 6%. Experts project that ethnic minorities will account for over one-third of the U.S. population early in the 21st century (Hall, 1997; Sue, 1991). These realities have contributed to psychologists’ increased interest in cultural factors as determinants of behavior. (Data from U.S. Bureau of the Census) Figure 1.3 ©2002 Prentice Hall

Sociocultural Perspective (1960’s) • A psychological approach that emphasizes the “relationships between human action, on the and the cultural, institutional, and historical situations in which this action occurs”(Wertsch et al, 1996, p. 11) • Lev Vygotsky • Barbara Rogoff ©2002 Prentice Hall

Psychological Research • Basic Psychology: The study of psychological issues in order to seek knowledge for its own sake rather than for its practical application • Applied Psychology: The study of psychological issues that have direct practical significance; also the application of psychological findings. ©2002 Prentice Hall

Figure 1.8 Principal professional specialties in contemporary psychology. Most psychologists who deliver professional services to the public specialize in one of the four areas described here. Clinical psychology is the most common professional specialty. About two-thirds of psychologists who render professional services are clincial psychologists. Figure 1.8 ©2002 Prentice Hall

Critical Thinking • Critical Thinking: The ability and willingness to assess claims and make objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence, rather than emotion or anecdote ©2002 Prentice Hall

Critical Thinking Guidelines • Ask Questions: Be willing to wonder • Define Your Terms • Examine the Evidence • Analyze Assumptions and Biases • Avoid Emotional Reasoning • Don't Oversimplify • Consider Other Interpretations • Tolerate Uncertainty ©2002 Prentice Hall

Defining Psychology