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The Human Body: An Orientation

The Human Body: An Orientation. Chapter 1. Anatomy - The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. Physiology - The study of the function of living organisms. Definitions. Topics of Anatomy. Gross Anatomy

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The Human Body: An Orientation

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  1. The Human Body:An Orientation Chapter 1

  2. Anatomy - The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. Physiology - The study of the function of living organisms. Definitions

  3. Topics of Anatomy • Gross Anatomy • The study of large body structures visible to the naked eye

  4. Topics of Anatomy • Regional Anatomy • The study of all structures (blood vessels, nerves, muscles) located in a particular region of the body

  5. Topics of Anatomy • Systemic Anatomy • The gross anatomy of the body studied system by system

  6. Topics of Anatomy • Surface Anatomy • The study of internal body structures as they relate to the overlying skin

  7. Topics of Anatomy • Microscopic Anatomy • The study of structures too small to be seen without the aid of a microscope

  8. Topics of Anatomy • Cellular Anatomy • The study of cells of the body

  9. Topics of Anatomy • Histology • The study of the microscopic structure of tissues

  10. Topics of Anatomy • Developmental Anatomy • The study of changes in an individual from conception to old age

  11. Topics of Anatomy • Embryology • The study of the developmental changes that occur before birth

  12. Complementarity of Structure and Function • The principle of complementarity of structure and function implies that function is dependent upon structure • Anatomy and physiology are truly inseparable sciences • In architecture “form follows function” • A description of anatomy is followed by an explanation of its function, the structural characteristics contributing to that physiologic function

  13. Levels of Structural Complexity • Chemical • Molecules • Cells • Tissue • Organ • Organ System • Organism

  14. Levels of Structural Complexity • Chemical Level • The simplest level of structural organization

  15. Levels of Structural Complexity • Molecules • Building blocks of matter that combine to form water, sugar and proteins

  16. Levels of Structural Complexity • Cellular Level • The smallest units of living tissue • In this example the tissue is smooth muscle fiber

  17. Levels of Structural Complexity • Tissue Level • Consists of groups of similar cells that have a common function • epithelium • muscle • connective • nervous

  18. Levels of Structural Complexity • Organ Level • A structure composed of at least two tissue types (with four the most common) that performs a specific function for the body

  19. Levels of Structural Complexity • Organ System Level • Organs that cooperate with one another to perform a common function

  20. Levels of Structural Complexity • Organism Level • The highest level of organization, the living organism

  21. Organ Systems • The 11 human organ systems • Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive

  22. Maintaining Life Functions • Maintenance of Boundaries • Movement • Responsiveness • Digestion • Metabolism • Excretion • Reproduction • Growth

  23. Maintenance of boundaries Every organism must control its internal environment Need for selectively permeable membranes Protection from external environment Maintaining Life Functions

  24. Movement All voluntary movement of skeletal muscles All movements of the involuntary muscles Dependent upon the muscle cell being able to contract Maintaining Life Functions

  25. Responsiveness The ability to sense changes in the environment and to react to the changes The nervous system is the primary example Related also to learning to monitor key stimuli Maintaining Life Functions

  26. Digestion The process of breaking down food stuffs for absorption The digestive system does this for the entire body The circulatory system distributes the nutrients Maintaining Life Functions

  27. Metabolism Encompasses the chemical reactions of the body It includes breaking down molecules of food as well as forming new structures Regulated in large part by hormones Maintaining Life Functions

  28. Excretion The process of removing wastes from the body Several systems often participate to carry out this process Necessary in order to maintain internal environment Maintaining Life:Functional Characteristics

  29. Reproduction Can occur at the cellular or organism level Cellular reproduction is for tissue repair Organism reproduction is for procreation There exists a division of labor of this function Maintaining Life Functions

  30. Growth An increase in the size of the body part or organism Accomplished by increasing the number of cells Cell increase must be at a faster rate than cell loss Maintaining Life Functions

  31. Survival Needs • Nutrients • Oxygen • Water • Body Temperature • Atmospheric pressure

  32. Nutrients Substances used for energy and cell building Carbohydrates are fuel for body cells Proteins for building cell structures Fats for insulation and energy reserves Minerals & vitamins for chemical reaction Survival Needs

  33. Oxygen Oxygen needed for chemical reactions Cells will survive only a few minutes without oxygen Made available by the respiratory and cardiovascular systems Survival Needs

  34. Water It provides the environment for chemical reactions Fluid base for body secretions and excretions Obtained by foods and liquids ingested Lost by evaporation from skin and lungs Survival Needs

  35. Body temperature Body temperature must be maintained for chemical reaction Too low, reactions will slow or stop Too high, chemical reactions occur at a rate that causes body proteins to lose their shape and stop functioning Survival Needs

  36. Atmospheric pressure Breathing and air exchange is dependent on appropriate pressure Inadequate pressure limits the ability of the body to support metabolism Survival Needs

  37. Homeostasis • Definition • Control Mechanisms • Negative feedback • Positive feedback • Homeostatic imbalances

  38. Homeostasis • The ability of the body to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though there is continuous change in the outside world • A state of dynamic equilibrium • The body functions within relatively narrow limits • All body systems contribute to its maintenance

  39. Control Mechanisms • Regardless of the factor or event (variable) being regulated, all homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components • Receptor (stimuli of change is detected) • Control center (determines response) • Effector (bodily response to the stimulus)

  40. Control Mechanisms • Regulation of homeostasis is accomplished through the nervous and endocrine systems

  41. Control Mechanisms • A chain of events . . . • Stimulus produces a change in a variable • Change is detected by a sensory receptor • Sensory input information is sent along an afferent pathway to control center • Control center determines the response • Output information sent along efferent pathway to activate response • Monitoring of feedback to determine if additional response is required

  42. Negative Feedback Mechanisms • Most control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms • A negative feedback mechanism decreases the intensity of the stimulus or eliminates it • The negative feedback mechanism causes the system to change in the opposite direction from the stimulus • Example: home heating thermostat

  43. Positive Feedback Mechanisms • A positive feedback mechanism enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus so that activity is accelerated • It is considered positive because it results in change occurring in the same direction as the original stimulus • Positive feedback mechanisms usually control infrequent events such as blood clotting or childbirth

  44. Positive Feedback Mechanism • Break or tear in blood vessel wall • Clotting occurs as platelets adhere to site and release chemicals • Released chemical attract more platelets • Clotting proceeds until break is sealed by newly formed clot

  45. Homeostatic Imbalances • Most diseases cause homeostatic imbalances (chills, fevers, elevated white blood counts etc) • Aging reduces our ability to maintain homeostasis • Heat stress

  46. The Language of Anatomy • Anatomical position • Directional terms • Regional terms • Body planes and sections • Body cavities and membranes • Abdominopelvic regions and quadrants

  47. Anatomical Position • Anatomical position • Body erect with feet together • Arms at side with palms forward • Directional terms are used to describe a body structure or limb segment as it relates to the anatomical position

  48. The Language of Anatomy: • Superior Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body • Inferior Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body

  49. The Language of Anatomy: • Anterior Toward or at the front of the body (ventral) • Posterior Toward the back of the body; behind (dorsal)

  50. The Language of Anatomy: • Medial Toward or at the midline of the body • Lateral Away from the midline of the body • Intermediate Between a more medial and a more lateral structure

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