Chapter 10

1. Section 1 Chapter 10

2. Qualitative Research: Theory and Practice • Methods chosen for research dependant on a number of factors including: • Purpose of the research • Characteristics of the participants • Researchers’ beliefs about the nature of knowledge and how it can be acquired. • Epistemology: questions such as • “how can we know about the world?” • “what is the basis of our knowledge?” • Ontology: Does a social reality exist independently of human perceptions and interpretations?

3. Theory and practice • Ritchie and Lewis (2003) • Three main questions on the debate in relation to epistemology: • What is the relationship between the researcher and the researched? • Being studied effects people so they do not behave naturally. • The researcher brings assumptions and influences the way data are collected and analyzed. • Reflexivity: researcher needs to reflect on their own background and beliefs so it can be known the role it plays in the research process. • What can be held as truth? • Correspondence theory of truth: • The claim that truth or falsity of knowledge is determined by if it accurately describes the world. • There must be a match between observations of the natural world and independent reality. • Coherence theory of truth: • The trust or falsity of knowledge is not absolute, but rather consensual. • Truth is determined by whether or not it can be supported by other observations or statements. *assuming the truth is in the data • How is knowledge gathered? • The natural sciences rely on deductive processes (hypothesis testing.) • Focus on cause-and-effect relationships, generalization, and prediction. • Social sciences rely on inductive processes based on collected data to reach conclusions. • Focus on understanding of social processes.

4. Theory and practice • Ritchie and Lewis (2003) • Interpretative approach – the understanding from the view of those involved. • The goal of qualitative research is to get a picture of the external reality that is diverse and multifaceted. • Rolfe (2006) • There is no unified qualitative paradigm, it only appears so in textbooks.

5. Theory and practice • The difference between qualitative and quantitative data: • Quantitative: • research based on “numbers” that are easy to summarize and submit for statistical analysis. • Quantitative meant to be generalizations from a sample’s data. • Qualitative: • Qualitative data gathered directly through interaction with participants. • Ex: one-on-one interview, group interview, observation. • Qualitative data consists of text. • Ex: field notes and transcripts. • Qualitative data texts are open-ended and able to be interpreted.

6. Theory and practice • Strengths of qualitative research: • Provides rich data – descriptions of individuals based on concepts, meanings, and explanations from data. • Useful for investigating complex and sensitive issues. • Ex: illness, sexuality, homelessness, abusive relationships. • Explain phenomena – what lies behind it; why? • Solves problems through identifying and evaluating factors. • Ex: What initiatives are needed to resettle homeless people. • Generates new ideas and theories to explain and overcome problems. • People studied in their own environment increases validity.

7. Theory and practice • Limitations of qualitative research: • Time-consuming and generates much data. • No clear strategy for breaking down the data. • Interpretations of data may be subjective.

8. Theory and practice • Can qualitative studies be generalized? • Representational generalization • Findings from a qualitative research study can be applied to populations outside of the study. • Inferential generalization • Findings of the study can be applied to settings outside of the study (aka. Transferability or external validity) • Theoretical generalization • Theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theory. (inferences about effective policy.)

9. Theory and practice • Ethical considerations • Informed consent – sometimes impossible for valid research. • Protecting participants from harm – sensitive issue with violence, abuse, alcoholism, etc. • Anonymity and confidentiality – The identity of participants should not be known by those outside of the research team with few exceptions.

10. Theory and practice • Sampling techniques of qualitative research • Probability – related to statistical probability and representativeness • Non-probability sampling – most rigorous approach to sampling for statistical research. • Samples in qualitative research are chosen to represent important characteristics of a population. • Three different kinds of sampling: • Purposive sampling • Snowball sampling • Convenience sampling

11. Theory and practice • Purposive sampling: • Targets a particular group of people. • Criteria based on the aim of the study. • Useful in situations where the researcher needs to obtain a sample quickly to investigate an urgent problem such as a new rehab scheme for people who have had strokes. • May be the only option if sample is hard to locate. • Ex: homeless elderly women • Keep in mind that purposive sampling may be biased.

12. Theory and practice • Snowball sampling • Used to get a hold of participants without investing much time and energy. • Researchers ask participants if they know anyone else who would fit into the group. • May help locate hidden populations (rare or hard to find people.) • Cost-efficient sampling to locate participants. • Difficult to avoid bias and confidentiality concerns in snowball sampling.

13. Theory and practice • Convenience sampling • Concentrates on people who are available and asked if they would like to participate. • Ex: high school students, college students, people in the mall. • A sample could represent not only those in the study, but those in similar situations around the country. • Similar research needs to be done in order to confirm it.

14. Theory and practice • Participant expectations and research bias in qualitative research. • Participation expectations (reactivity) • participants’ ideas of the research and the trustworthiness of the data (behave in certain ways to please researcher. • Researcher bias • The researcher’s own beliefs that determine the research process (little attention paid to participants.

15. Theory and practice • Credibility in qualitative research • Credibility – internal validity that is used. • Trustworthiness – the findings of the research reflect the meaning as described by the participants. • Guba and Lincoln (1989) – peer reviews are needed to check for proper interpretations of the data or applying other methods of analysis. • Rolfe (2006) – A study is trustworthy if, and only if, the reader of the research report judges it to be so.

16. Theory and practice • Effect of triangulation on credibility and trustworthiness on qualitative research. • Triangulation – the cross-checking of information and conclusions in research through the use of multiple procedures or sources. • Forms of triangulation: • Method triangulation – involves comparing data that comes from the use of different methods. • Data triangulation – involves comparing data that come from data gathered from other participants or other sources. (ex: observations and interviews) • Researcher triangulation – the use of several observers, interviewers, or researchers to compare and check data collection and interpretation. • Theory triangulation – involves looking at the data using different theoretical perspectives. • Hammersly (1992) – There is no completely reliable way to find “truth.” The closest way is to carefully examine all evidence and see if it supports the interpretation.

17. Theory and practice • Reflexivity in qualitative research • Willig (2001) – there are two types of reflexivity: • Personal reflexivity – reflecting on ways researcher’s values, beliefs, experiences, interests, and political commitment influence the research. Also, how the research effects the researcher personally and professionally. • Epistemological reflexivity – thinking about the ways knowledge has been generated in the study. • Examples: • Asking if the research question limits what could be found. • Is the design of the study and analysis of results biased? • Would a different approach have brought about a different understanding of the topic?