World History AP Review

World History AP Review 1750 to 1914

Muhammad Ali He was the ruler of Egypt after the failed invasion of Napoléon Bonaparte in 1798. Even within the admittedly weakening Ottoman Empire, Ali was able to create an autonomous state. He is known for his modernization efforts in the areas of industrialization and the military. A portrait of the ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali; an ethnic Albanian born in Greece

American Revolution Britain's American colonies, in the mid-1700s, began to resist against parliamentary tax legislation and its violation of English rights. The colonies created a continental congress to begin formulating those things required for a separation, including an army and military leadership. On 4 July 1776, the colonies declared their independence. The thinking that lay behind the declaration was firmly rooted in Enlightenment thinking such as inalienable rights and government based on the consent of the governed. It was France that would provide the needed supplies and money for the Americans to win the war and Britain did surrender in 1781. The subsequent democratic government based on the will of the people influenced many other revolutions and uprisings in the decades and centuries to come. Washington and his men cross the Delaware to face Hessians on the other side.

Armenian Genocide In the last decade of the 19th-century, the Ottomans grew concern about the loyalties, or lack thereof, of the Armenians. As the Armenians were Christians, the Muslim Ottomans felt the Armenians were growing closer to the empire's arch enemy, the Russians. So, from the 1890s until the First World War, the Ottoman Turks began a period of killings that amounted to genocide as millions of Armenians died over a quarter of a century. A massacred Armenian family during the Turkish genocide.

Berlin Conference It was a meeting of European powers to codify the colonies that each country had in Africa and set procedures if any country wanted to expand or alter its boundaries on the continent. Oddly enough, no one native to Africa or the various colonies were represented. By 1885, the only pieces of Africa left untouched was Ethiopia and Liberia. The boundaries, arbitrarily drawn, led to future problems as long-time rivals were thrust into one colony together. The meeting of European powers in Berlin

Otto von Bismarck He was the chancellor of Prussia whose military exploits led to the unification and expansion of a German state through a policy of "blood and iron” (Blut und Eisen). A portrait of the Prussian leader

Bloody Sunday Not to be confused with the incident of the same name in Ireland in the early 1970s, this was peaceful demonstration in St. Petersburg in 1905 that turned violent and ugly when imperial guards opened fire on the unarmed crowd. The protestors sought a representative assembly. The killings resulted in protests throughout the country and local councils (soviets) organized to protest for more rights. Czar Nicholas II responded by creating the Duma, the Russian parliament. While the czar calmed the waters, faith in him and his ability to rule was irrevocably lost and would set in motion his demise in the next decade. Russian imperial guards opening fire on communist protestors

Simon Bolívar He was a Creole from South America who was responsible for the revolutionary movement against Spain in that region. He, like the revolutionaries in America and France, was motivated and inspired by the Enlightened ideals. It was his dedication and military leadership that lead to the independence of Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru and Ecuador. José de San Martín helped with the independence of Argentina and Chile. Bolívar hoped to create a unified country out of the various states in South America but that dream never materialized. A portrait of the South American liberator

Napoléon Bonaparte He was a French general who led a coup d'état in 1799. He crowned himself emperor by 1804 with a new constitution. He initiated political and social reforms that created a certain level of stability. His civil code of laws created universal male enfranchisement and pushed for religious toleration. Militarily, he conquered much of Europe. He made a huge mistake in invading Russia in 1812 and between the Russians and the horrible Russian winter, suffered a humiliating and total defeat. The British would later exile him. Jacques-Louis David’s famous painting, Napoléon at the Saint-Bernard Pass

Boxer Uprising The Boxers were a secret society first formed to abolish or alter the monarchy in China. Towards the end of the 19th-century, the monarchy began using them to do what it could not - strike back at the invading and controlling Europeans and Japanese. The culmination of the Boxers' activities was laying siege on the foreign legations (embassies) in the capital of Peking in the summer of 1900. It would take a multinational force, including the Americans, to defeat the Boxers and their monarchial supporters. The allied forces ordered reparations from the Qing, which further weakened the imperial government and eventually, led to its abolishment within the decade. Despite its resemblance to a Terry Gilliam work, this is actually a depiction of the multinational forces brought together to defeat the Boxers and relieve the besieged legations in Beijing.

Congress of Vienna In session from 1814 to 1815, it comprised representatives of those countries who defeated Napoléon Bonaparte. Their objective was to restore Europe to its pre-French Revolution condition. It was led by Prince Metternich of Austria and their particular goals were to restore the French monarchy and create a balance of power to ensure this type of instability would not happen again. While not perfect, Europe would not face another major war until World War I. Yet another gathering of European leaders, this time to decide the fate of France.

Crimean War Waged during the 1850s, it was a conflict between Russia and a group of countries including England, France and the Ottoman Empire as a result of Russian designs on the Balkan Peninsula. For the western Europeans, this was an attempt to check the power of the Russians and restore a balance of power. Russian defeat was predictable and easy and it led to a modernization of Russia's military along the lines of European technology and weapons. A painting of the famous “Charge of the Light Brigade.”

German unification In the 19th-century, various independent German-speaking states, led by the chancellor of Prussia Otto von Bismarck, unified to create a Germanic state. The state expanded with von Bismarck's military exploits against Austria, France and Denmark. Unification was complete by 1871 with the Prussian king, Wilhelm, named the first leader of Germany.

Haitian Revolution Formally known as Saint Domingue, a French colony, enslaved Africans rose up against French leadership, led by Toussaint L'Ouverture. Napoléon sent French soldiers to put down the uprising and L'Ouverture was imprisoned but the rebellion continued under the leadership of Jacques Dessalines. Saint Domingue declared itself independent in 1804, renamed itself Haiti and became the first republic in Latin America. Oddly enough, the U.S. refused to recognize the new country. The Battle of Domingo by Polish artist January Suchodolski – a fight between Haitian rebels and Polish troops in French service

Indian National Congress It was an organization created in 1885 by upper-class Hindus to serve Indians as a whole on issues related to British rule, and later, advocating for self-rule. Muslim Indians, suspicious of Hindu motives, created the Muslim League. The two groups joined to obtain rights for Indians. Their motives also continued together to obtain independence.

Industrial Revolution The movement began in 1700s England as production of goods were done as a mass scale using machines first powered by water and later coal. England was a natural choice due to their large work force, natural resources and navigable waterways. The period is known for new machines (mechanization) such as the flying shuttle and spinning jenny within the textile industry, advances in steam power and quicker ways of making steel called the Bessemer Process. This led to greater transportation, not only on the water but by rail. A movement of this importance would naturally have long-range consequences such as the lowering of prices and the subsequent increase in demand, higher standard of living, the emergence of a new middle class and a large working class, the shift of women from the fields into the home and rapid urbanization which led to the development of tenements and slums. In response to the changes, governments passed laws to protect workers, unions formed to speak for workers and their concerns while philosophers argued at the social ramifications. Adam Smith, in his book The Wealth of Nations, pushed for a laissez-faire approach to the economy while German Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels condemned capitalism and advocated a more socialistic approach.

Italian unification The independent states of the Italian peninsula were unified under the nationalist movement of Giuseppe Garibaldi, Giuseppe Mazzini and Count Camillodi Cavour. Unification was complete by 1861.

Factory System It refers to the methods by which European countries grew more industrialized, through the mass production of increasingly cheaper goods within the confines of factories. Early conditions of factories were pretty dangerous and workers were not compensated fairly or adequately. Government legislation and labor unions would eventually work to protect and extend the rights of workers. Normally, factories were centrally located in urban areas, near sources of energy like water or coal fields. Mass production of goods were allowable due to advances in interchangeable parts and assembly line production. Capitalist ideas like competition forced factories to find ways to make things faster, cheaper and more efficient.

The French Revolution (La Révolution) It was a revolution that began in 1789 and led to the immediate trial and execution of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. The rule of France passed to the radical Jacobins who initiated the “reign of terror.” The subsequent instability and government incompetence led to the rise of Napoléon Bonaparte. C'était une révolution qui a commencé en 1789 et a causé le procès immédiat et l'exécution du Roi Louis XVI et de Marie Antoinette. L’autorité de la France a passé aux Jacobins radicaux qui ont lancé le "règne de terreur.” L'instabilité qui a suivi et l'incompétence gouvernementale ont causé l'ascension de Napoléon Bonaparte.

Latin American independence movement The revolutions in America and France along with the Enlightenment ideals spurred a similar movement in the Spanish-controlled regions of Latin America. The first to go rouge was Haiti in 1803 after a slave revolt. In the rest of the region, it was peninsulares and their privilege that motivated creoles to rise up and spread revolutionary fervor. Most Latin American countries declared independence when their parent country was dealing with the shenanigans of Napoléon. Some of the more important leaders were Simon Bolivar who fought Spanish rule in South America and Miguel Hidalgo, a priest who won appeal among the mestizo and native populations in Mexico. Even though most of Latin America was independent by 1825, some of the resultant independent governments were autocracies or oligarchies that lasted well into the 20th-century.

Leopold of Belgium He is best known for his control over the Congo Free State in central Africa as the one major colony of the small European country. Leopold grew filthy rich off the wealth of the land and since it was not under direct Belgium control, he did not have to expend money to rule it as such. He used locals as a slave force upon large rubber plantations. By 1908, protests about conditions led to Belgium taking direct control over the colony. Leopold's methods and the subsequent wealth he gained from it led to Europeans flooding the unknown or little known world in search of wealth.

Toussaint L’Ouverture He was the leader of a slave rebellion against French authorities on the colony of Saint Domingue (Haiti). Even though he was a slave himself, he was education and knowledgeable in the ideals of the Enlightenment. He led the army against French forces. He was eventually imprisoned and later died but his movement did not perish and in 1803, the newly-named Haiti gained its independence.

Karl Marx He was a 19th-century philosopher who called for and predicted the workers controlling society and the means of production as a means of wiping out capitalistic economic systems. Marx's ideas are enumerated in The Communist Manifesto. His ideas saw fruition in 1917 when V.I. Lenin, the head of the Bolshevik Party in Russia, took over his country and turned it into the world's first communist state.

Meiji Restoration The opening of Japan and the bad treatment received from the Europeans led to the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate and the restoration of the emperor under the Meiji family in 1868. It brought a formalized end to Japanese feudalism and created a new centralized government with a new constitution. This was followed by the Meiji reformation which included modernization along the western European model. This was accompanied by industrialization, the building of infrastructures and banks and a modernization of the military. By the turn of the century, Japan became a world power.

Mexican Revolution The seeds of revolution in Mexico stemmed from the lack of social reforms from a procession of dictators, culminating with General PorfirioDíaz. Improvements in the economy in the early parts of the 20th-century was not enough to ebb the revolutionary fervor. Led by Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, members of the lower and middle class overthrew Díaz in 1911. By 1917, a new constitution was created and land reform and rights for women and workers were established, as was universal suffrage and improvements in education and healthcare. The nationalism that swept the country also led to the nationalizing of industries and prohibited future foreign-controlled businesses.

Monroe Doctrine Supported and concocted by the British to protect its interests while caught up with issues at home and endorsed and announced by President James Monroe, the Monroe Doctrine was the U.S. telling European powers that all issues with countries in the western hemisphere would have to use the U.S. as a mediator and were not allowed to bring a military presence to the region. Not only does it keep the Europeans out, it gives the U.S. tacit approval to intervene in Latin American affairs.

National Assembly This was the creation of the Third Estate, who broke away from the Estates General, the legislative body during the monarchial period of French history. The Third Estate was heavily influenced by Enlightenment thinking and the success and ideals of the American revolution. Operating under the idea of "life, liberty and fraternity," they pushed Enlightenment ideas and adopted a new constitution in 1791 which created a constitutional monarchy. However, the Assembly could not last and it could not control the excesses of the movement and could not fulfill all of their ideals.

Nationalism In a dictionary sense, it means an excessive pride in one's country or culture. The various independent and unification movements during the 1700s and 1800s were based on this concept. It was prevalent during the French revolution, the Zionist movement, the Indian National Congress, the unification movements of Germany and Italy and the independence of Latin American states.

“New” Imperialism Following the European expansion period of the 1500s and 1600s, this later incarnation in the late 1800s pertained to wealthy countries seeking economic control over weaker states. Such footholds in other areas allowed for military bases and imperialistic competition as well as the search for markets and natural resources. The main justification for such tactics included the spread of Christianity, Social Darwinism and the concept of the "white man's burden."

Open Door Policy Created by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay (right) in 1899, it was a series of briefs that declared America's desire to see China completely open to everyone for equal access to trade. This was an attempt by Hay to circumvent the spheres of influence by Europeans and while never formally agreed upon, it was never opposed by the countries involved and became the de facto policy.

Opium War It was a war that China waged against the British over the latter selling opium in Chinese ports. Its value was given in silver and the unequal balance of trade threatened the relationship. In 1839, Chinese officials, led by Lin Zexu, ordered the elimination and destruction of all opium. Britain responded by attacking Chinese interests. The war was not much of one as the British easily won and then forced China to accept the horribly unjust Nanking Treaty where the Chinese had to pay for the war and the destroyed opium crop as well as open other ports to foreign trade. As China weakened, other Europeans moved in to carve out spheres of influence. The sustained presence of foreigners in China led to the rise of secret societies who targeted the westerners but also the monarchial government that led the outsiders in.

Ottoman Empire – the Fall By the end of the 19th-century, the Ottoman empire was so weak that its European neighbors took to calling it the "sick, old man of Europe." It lost territory in Russia and the Balkans and the subsequent weakness led to various calls for revolution. One of the major reasons was the general shift of trade from land to sea routes, which cut out the Ottoman middlemen. Additionally, the British and French interfered in its internal affairs as it grew stronger. By 1900, like the Chinese on the other side of Asia, the empire tried reforms but it was too little, too late.

Panama Canal It is a canal built to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In 1903, Columbia owned the region but the U.S. instigated a revolution with dissatisfied Panamanians and the new government quickly gave President Theodore Roosevelt the permission needed to build the canal. The canal opened for business eleven years later and in 1999, the canal was reverted back to Panamanian control.

Qing Dynasty – the Fall The Qing began reforms in the late 19th-century but it was a case of too little, too late. Unable to control the internal unrest in the country, a revolution broke out in 1911, spearheaded by the Kuomingtang (Nationalists) who had slowly gained momentum after the death of the Empress Dowager, Cixi (left). In 1912, the last emperor abdicated his throne and a new government, led by Sun Yat-sen, was created along republican lines.

Russo-Japanese War At the turn of the 20th-century, Japan attacked Port Arthur, a Russian port in Manchuria, as well as Korea. There had been conflict between the two countries for decades over Korea and Manchuria. The war waged between the two countries and the Japanese easily gained the upper hand. Under the advice of U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, the two countries signed the Treaty of Portsmouth where the Japanese gained sovereignty over Manchuria, Korea and former Russian islands in the Pacific. It was the first time that an eastern power convincingly defeated a western power.

Self-strengthening Movement Enacted as a result of the failed Taiping Rebellion, the reforms were designed to introduce westernization with the hope of modernizing China. The reforms, first opposed and later grudgingly supported by the Empress Dowager, Cixi (right), failed and China remained agrarian and committed to Confucius ideals.

Sepoy Rebellion This was a revolt by Indian soldiers, sepoys, against the rule and oppression of the British East India Company. While the sepoys were hired to protect the interest of the company, the company provided their soldiers with bullets coated in pig and cow fat; a horribly offensive gesture in general, particular to the Hindus and Muslims that made up the force. While it was quickly crushed, the British took complete control of the subcontinent.

Serf Emancipation After Russia's defeat in the Crimean War, societal reform was pushed for and achieved with the freedom of serfs by Alexander II in 1861. However, like the freed slaves in America, emancipation of serfs did not improve their lives much. Some stayed on the farms while others drifted towards cities but economic improvement was not seen in either setting. New social problems would develop and later lead to revolution.

Sino-Japanese War In the early 1890s, China and Japan wrestled for control over Korea. Japan, fully restored and reformed under the Meiji, supported pro-Japanese reformers in Korea and the Korean government asked China for help. Japan responded in kind and the war was a go-go. Chinese troops were easily defeated and the Qing were forced to sign the Treaty of Shimonoseku. In the treaty, the Chinese promised to stay out of Korea, they lost authority in Manchuria and Taiwan. Two things were evident in the aftermath of the war; one, China was quickly disintegrating and Japan was, just as quickly, rising to imperial status and world power.

Social Darwinism Borne out of the ideas of Charles Darwin, it was the concept that explained why some businesses or countries succumbed to others; because of the "survival of the fittest" or that only the strong can and should win out.

Socialism It is important to know that there are different types of socialism. The Utopian kind who sought to create a perfect society but that did not work out too well. The next stage of socialists were those who sought to create a classless society with control held by the workers. This version was best described by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marx's book, The Communist Manifesto, suggested that a class warfare between the rich (bourgeoisie) and the workers (proletariat) would end with the workers controlling the means of production. The Soviet Russians would be the first to adopt the ideals of Marx to become the world's first communist country. Others, like North Korea (left) followed in the following decades.

Spanish-American War Responding to the destruction of the USS Maine in Havana harbor and for the purpose of protecting American businesses in Cuba and Cubans from brutal Spanish overlords, the U.S. declared war on Spain and fought it mainly in Cuba and the Philippines. The war eventually gave the U.S. Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines with operational control of Cuba.

Spheres of Influence These were areas of economic control or influence held by various European powers and Japan in China. These powers took advantage of a weak China and unfair treaty obligations to secure footholds. Countries like Germany, France, Italy, Russia and Japan all held spheres of influence to maintain and guarantee profits. The presence of foreigners eventually led to uprisings like the Boxers in 1900.

Taiping Rebellion This was a rebellion in the mid-19th-century in central China. Their leader, a lunatic failed student who claimed to be the second son of God, pushed for redistribution of land, education for all and universal rights. While they enjoyed some short-term success, at its height, capturing the city of Nanjing, the Qing later crushed it with its powerful army and with the support of the ever important scholar-gentry. Though it was a failed endeavor, it did lead to social reforms, including the Self-Strengthening Movement.

Zionism It was a nationalist movement that began in the late 1800s under the direction of Theodore Herzl of Austria (right). After WW I, with the release of the British Balfour Declaration which recognized and supported the existence of a Jewish state, Jewish immigration into Palestine rose sharply. The influx created tensions between Jews and Palestinian Arabs. After WW II, the United Nations officially created a Jewish state out of the British mandated area of Palestine. The subsequent years were marked by war between Israel and the Arab states.

World History AP Review