Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood PowerPoints developed by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan

1. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chapter 7 Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood PowerPoints developed by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan Community College -- Omaha

2. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Body Growth and Change Middle and late childhood -- slow, consistent growth Children grow an average of 2 to 3 inches a year They gain about 5 to 7 pounds a year due to increases in the size of the skeletal and muscular systems and size of body organs Total brain volume stabilizes by the end of middle and late childhood Significant changes in various structures and regions of the brain continue to occur (Durston & Casey, 2006). (Anderson, Jacobs, & Harvey, 2006) (Toga, Thompson, & Sowell, 2006)

3. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Focal Activation in the Prefrontal Cortex Synaptic pruning -- areas of the brain not being used lose synaptic connections and those being used show an increase in connections Cognitive control -- which involves flexible and effective control in a number of areas These areas include controlling attention, reducing interfering thoughts, inhibiting motor actions (Munkata, 2006)

4. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Motor Development Children�s motor skills become much smoother and more coordinated than they were in early childhood In gross motor skills involving large activity, boys usually outperform same-age girls Increased myelination of the central nervous system is shown in improvement of fine motor skills Fine motor coordination develops so that children can write rather than print words

5. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Exercise Children are more fatigued by long periods of sitting than by running, jumping, or bicycling Practical ways to get children to exercise Improve physical fitness activities in schools Offer more physical activity programs run by volunteers at school facilities Have children plan community and school activities that really interest them Encourage families to focus more on physical activity and encourage parents to exercise more (Corbin & others, 2008) (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2003) (Ruxton, 2004)

6. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Health, Illness, Disease, Accidents, and Injuries�� Disease and death are less prevalent than during other periods in childhood and in adolescence Injuries are the leading cause of death during middle and late childhood most common cause of severe injury and death is motor vehicle accidents, either as a pedestrian or as a passenger other serious injuries involve bicycles, skateboards, roller skates, and other sports equipment most accidents occur in or near the child�s home or school (Hockenberry, 2005)

7. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Cancer� Second-leading cause of death in U.S. children 5 to 14 years of age Incidence of cancer in children is increasing 1 in 330 children develops cancer before the age of 19 Child cancers mainly attack the white blood cells (leukemia), brain, bone, lymph system, muscles, kidneys, and nervous system (Neglia & others, 2001) (Savell & others, 2004)

8. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

9. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Overweight The percentage of U.S. children who are at risk for being overweight has doubled from 15 % in the 1970s to almost 30 % today Girls are more likely than boys to be overweight Being overweight is less common in African-American than in non-Latino white children during childhood, but during adolescence this reverses (Flegal, Ogden, & Carroll, 2004) (Paxson & others, 2006)

10. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Risks Caused by Overweight Being overweight raises the risk for many medical and psychological problems Overweight children can develop lung problems and hip problems Other problems include high blood pressure, elevated blood cholesterol levels, and type 2 diabetes Low self-esteem, depression, and problems in peer relations are common (Arif & Rohrer, 2006) (Daniels, 2006) (Bindler & Bruya, 2006) (Janssen & others, 2004)

11. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Causes of Increase in Overweight Children Changes in diet greater away-from-home consumption large increases in total calories from salty snacks, soft drinks, and pizza large decreases in calories from low- and medium-fat milk and medium- and high-fat beef and pork Total caloric intake has also increased Time spent watching TV Inadequate levels of exercise (Nielsen, Siega-Riz, & Popkin, 2002) (Giammattei & others, 2003)

12. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Prevention of Overweight Parents play an important role by: encouraging healthy eating habits in children by eating more family meals together, and making healthy foods available not keeping sugar-sweetened beverages and other unhealthy foods in the home reducing children�s TV time getting children involved in sports and other physical activities being healthy, physically active models themselves (Lindsay & others, 2006) (Salmon, Campbell, & Crawford, 2006)

13. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Children With Disabilities Disabled children become more sensitive about their �differentness� and how it is perceived by others during elementary school 10% of children in the U.S. receive special education or related services 40% have a learning disability or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 17% have speech or language impairments 9% have mental retardation 7% have an emotional disturbance (National Center for Education Statistics, 2003)

14. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Children with Disabilities Disabled children become more sensitive about their �differentness� and how it is perceived by others during elementary school Definition of learning disabilities should include: a minimum IQ level a significant difficulty in a school-related area exclusion of severe emotional disorders, second-language background, sensory disabilities, and/or specific neurological deficits (Siegel, 2003)

15. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Causes of Learning Disability LDs tend to run in families with one parent having a disability such as dyslexia however, the specific genetic transmission of learning disabilities has not been discovered Majority of reading disabilities are the result of environmental influences It is unlikely learning disabilities reside in a single, specific brain location (Petrill & others, 2006) (Shaywitz, Lyon, & Shaywitz, 2006) disabilities (Berninger, 2006; Shaywitz, Lyon, & Shaywitz, 2006)

16. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Specific Disabilities Dyslexia -- category of individuals who have a severe impairment in their ability to read and spell most common problem writing may be extremely slow and illegible spelling errors because of inability to match sounds and letters

17. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) -- a disability showing these characteristics over a period of time: inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity They may get bored with a task after only a few minutes -- or even seconds They may be impulsive and have difficulty curbing their reactions They do not do a good job of thinking before they act

18. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Diagnosis and Causes of ADHD There is controversy about the increased diagnosis of ADHD Some experts attribute the increase to heightened awareness of the disorder Many children may be incorrectly diagnosed Definitive causes of ADHD have not been found (Daley, 2006; Zentall, 2006) (Waldman & Gizer, 2006)

19. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Treatment of ADHD Researchers have found that a combination of stimulant medication such as Ritalin or Adderall and behavior management improves the behavior of children with ADHD better than medication alone or behavior management alone Critics argue that many physicians are too quick to prescribe stimulants for children with milder forms of ADHD (Waldman & Gizer, 2006) (Chronis & others, 2004) (Barbaresi & others, 2006)

20. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Educational Issues Until the 1970s children with disabilities were refused enrollment and/or inadequately served 1975 -- Public Law 94-142 -- all students with disabilities must be given a free, appropriate public education 1990 -- Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 2004 -- Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2007)

21. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. IDEA Mandates Services Evaluation and eligibility determination Appropriate education Individualized education plan (IEP) Education in the least restrictive environment (LRE) Inclusion describes educating a child with special education needs full-time in the regular classroom 2004 revisions of IDEA aligned it with the government�s �No Child Left Behind� (NCLB) legislation (Smith, 2007) (Turnbull, Turnbull, & Tompkins, 2007)

22. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. IEP and LRE Individualized education plan (IEP) -- written statement that spells out a program that is specifically tailored for the student with a disability Least restrictive environment (LRE) -- a setting that is as similar as possible to the one in which children who do not have a disability are educated

23. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Piaget�s Concrete Operations Concrete operational stage lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of age Children can perform concrete operations and they can reason logically when it can be applied to specific or concrete examples Operations -- mental actions that are reversible Concrete operations -- operations that apply to real, concrete objects

24. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Recognizing Concrete Operational Thought Conservation tasks Classify or divide things into different sets or subsets, and consider their interrelationships Seriation -- the ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension (such as length) Another aspect is transitivity -- the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions

25. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Vygotsky�s Views Vygotksy, like Piaget, held that children construct their knowledge of the world Vygotsky did not propose stages of cognitive development He emphasized the importance of social interaction, the social contexts of learning, and the young child�s use of language to plan, guide, and monitor behavior (Cole & Gajdamaschko, 2007; Daniels, 2007)

26. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Neo-Piagetians Neo-Piagetians argue that Piaget got some things right but that his theory needs considerable revision They give more emphasis to how children use attention, memory, and strategies to process information A more accurate portrayal of children�s thinking requires attention to children�s strategies, the speed at which they process information, the task involved, and the division of problems into smaller, more precise steps (Case, 1987, 1999; Case & Mueller, 2001)

27. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Information Processing Information-processing approach focuses on how children process information about their world, including learning tasks During middle childhood, most children dramatically improve their ability to sustain and control attention Other changes involve memory, thinking, and metacognition

28. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Memory After age 7, short-term memory does not show as much increase as it did in the preschool period Long-term memory -- relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory Improvements in memory reflect increased knowledge and increased use of memory strategies (National Research Council, 1999)

29. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Memory Strategies Strategies -- deliberate mental activities to improve the processing of information Mental imagery can help to remember pictures Elaboration involves more extensive processing of the information thinking of examples relating the information to one�s own life elaboration makes the information more meaningful (Pressley & Hilden, 2006) (Schneider, 2004)

30. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Thinking Guilford (1967) distinguished between convergent thinking, which produces one correct answer divergent thinking, which produces many different answers to the same question and characterizes creativity Other forms Critical thinking involves thinking reflectively and productively, as well as evaluating the evidence Creative thinking -- ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems

31. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Encouraging Creative Thinking Provide children with environments that stimulate creativity Don�t overcontrol Encourage internal motivation Introduce children to creative people Have children engage in brainstorming Brainstorming -- children are encouraged to come up with creative ideas in a group, play off each other�s ideas, and say practically anything that comes to mind

32. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Metacognition Deanna Kuhn (1999) believes schools should pay more attention to helping students develop awareness of what they (and others) know schools should do more to develop metacognition -- cognition about cognition, or knowing about knowing studies of metacognition have focused on metamemory -- knowledge about memory (Flavell, 2004) (DeMarie, Abshier, & Ferron, 2001)

33. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Intelligence Intelligence -- problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and adapt to life�s everyday experiences Interest in intelligence has often focused on individual differences and assessment Individual differences -- the stable, consistent ways in which people are different from each other

34. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Historic Assessments of Intelligence Binet and Simon, in France in 1904, developed an intelligence test to meet the need to devise a method of identifying children who were unable to learn in school Binet developed the concept of mental age (MA) -- an individual�s level of mental development relative to others

35. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. In 1912, William Stern created the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ) -- a person�s mental age divided by his/her chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100 IQ = MA/CA � 100 Revisions to the Binet test are called the Stanford-Binet tests because revisions were made at Stanford University A normal distribution shows a symmetrical curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range of scores and fewer and fewer scores in the extremes of the range

36. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

37. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Wechsler Scales Another set of widely used tests is called the Wechsler scales, developed by David Wechsler WPPSI-III to test children 4 to 6 � WISC-IV Integrated for children and adolescents 6 to 16 WAIS-III for adults Wechsler scales provide an overall IQ they also yield subscales for verbal and performance IQs

38. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

39. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Types of Intelligence: Sternberg �� Sternberg�s triarchic theory of intelligence Intelligence comes in three forms: Analytical intelligence�-- ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast Creative intelligence -- ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine Practical intelligence -- the ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice (Sternberg, 1986, 2004, 2006)

40. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Types of Intelligence: Gardner verbal mathematical spatial bodily-kinesthetic musical interpersonal intrapersonal naturalist

41. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores Heritability -- the fraction of the variance in a population that is attributed to genetics most research on heredity and environment does not include environments that differ radically heritability index assumes that we can treat genetic and environmental influences as factors that can be separated most researchers agree that genetics and environment interact to influence intelligence (Gottlieb, Wahlsten, & Lickliter, 2006; Sternberg, 2006)

42. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Group Differences On average, African-American children in the U.S. score 10 to 15 points lower on standardized intelligence tests than white American schoolchildren do Children from Latino families also score lower than white children Group differences in average IQ scores may be due in part to biased tests or cultural differences (Brody, 2000; Lynn, 1996)

43. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Creating Culture-Fair Tests Culture-fair tests -- tests of intelligence that are intended to be free of cultural bias Two types have been devised one includes items that are familiar to children from all socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds or items that at least are familiar to the children taking the test second type of culture-fair test has no verbal questions

44. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Using Intelligence Tests Psychological tests are tools Their effectiveness depends on the knowledge, skill, and integrity of the user Avoid the pitfalls of using information in negative ways Avoid stereotyping and expectations Know that IQ is not a sole indicator of competence Use caution in interpreting an overall IQ score

45. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Extremes of Intelligence Mental retardation -- a condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life Giftedness -- above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something

46. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Language Development Children acquire new skills that make it possible to learn to read and write: increased use of language to talk about things that are not physically present learning what a word is learning how to recognize and talk about sounds They also learn the alphabetic principle --that the letters of the alphabet represent sounds of the language (Berko Gleason, 2003)

47. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness Changes occur in the way children�s mental vocabulary is organized Metalinguistic awareness -- knowledge about language Metalinguistic awareness allows children �to think about their language, understand what words are, and even define them�

48. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Approaches to Teaching Reading Whole-language approach stresses that reading instruction should parallel children�s natural language learning Phonics approach emphasizes that reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds Research suggests that children can benefit from both approaches

49. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Bilingualism and Second Language Learning Learning a second language is more readily accomplished by children than adolescents or adults Bilingualism -- the ability to speak two languages Subtractive bilingualism -- going from being monolingual in their home language to bilingual in that language and in English, only to end up monolingual as speakers of English