Cognitive Engineering PSYC 530 Automation and Human Performance

1. Cognitive EngineeringPSYC 530Automation and Human Performance Raja Parasuraman

2. Overview Characteristics of Automation Human Performance in Automated Systems Designing for Effective Human-Automation Interaction

3. Automation: Definitions and Characteristics

4. Automation is Ubiquitous • Aviation • Air traffic control • Ground and maritime transportation • Process control and manufacturing • Military command and control • Medicine and health care • Intelligent agents • Home automation • Robotics • Drug design/Molecular genetics

5. What is Automation? “A machine or system that accomplishes (partially or fully) a function that was previously carried out (partially or fully) by a human operator” Source: PARASURAMAN, R., & RILEY, V. (1997). Humans and automation: Use, misuse, disuse, abuse. Human Factors.

6. Advanced Automation: Boeing 777 EICAS NAV DISPLAY PAPER! PRIMARYFLGHT DISPLAY

7. Reasons for the March Towards More Automation Cost Safety? Technical Capability Human Factors? X

8. Grounding of the Cruise Ship Royal Majesty, Nantucket, 1995

9. Grounding of the Cruise Ship Royal Majesty, Nantucket, 1995 • Accident: Grounding of passenger ship on Rose and Crown shoal near Nantucket Island, MA • Losses: $2 million structural damage; $5 million lost revenue; no injuries or fatalities • Automation: Autopilot; Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA); Global Positioning System (GPS)

10. Grounding of the Cruise Ship Royal Majesty, Nantucket, 1995

11. Grounding of the Cruise Ship Royal Majesty, Nantucket, 1995 • NTSB Probable Cause: Over-reliance on automated features of the integrated bridge system; management failure to ensure officers adequately trained in automated features • Human-Automation Issues: automation complacency; crew resource management; training

12. NTSB Report Conclusions (Extracts) • …the GPS receiver antenna cable connection separated enough that the GPS switched to dead reckoning mode, and the autopilot….no longer corrected for the effects of wind, current or sea…. • …the watch officers’ monitoring of the status of the vessel’s GPS was deficient throughout the voyage… • ….deliberate cross-checking between the GPS and the Loran-C to verify position…was not being performed…. • ….all the watchstanding officers were overly reliant on the automated position display….and were, for all intents and purposes, sailing the map display instead of using navigation aids or lookout information

13. Human Performance in Automated Systems

14. Human Performance Cognitive Processes Visual Attention Mental Workload Vigilance and Monitoring Working Memory Situation Awareness Decision Making Social Processes Trust in Automation Attitudes

15. Levels of Automation HIGH 10. The computer decides everything, acts autonomously, ignoring the human. 9. informs the human only if it, the computer, decides to 8. informs the human only if asked, or 7. executes automatically, then necessarily informs the human, and 6. allows the human a restricted time to veto before automatic execution, or 5. executes that suggestion if the human approves, or 4. suggests one alternative 3. narrows the selection down to a few, or 2. The computer offers a complete set of decision/action alternatives, or LOW 1. The computer offers no assistance: human takes all decisions and actions. Source: SHERIDAN, T. B. (1992). Telerobotics, Automation, and Supervisory Control. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

16. Human-Automation Interaction: Some Empirical Methods • Human-in-the-loop Simulation • Human Performance Modeling • Quantitative Models • Field Studies

17. A Field Study?

18. Automation and Human Performance Automation can fundamentally change the nature of the cognitive demands and responsibilities of the human operators of system--often in ways that were unintended or unanticipated by designers

19. Automation and Human Performance: Benefits Improved precision of performance Operational flexibility Reduced mental workload Enhanced safety (automated warning systems)

20. Automation and Human Performance: Potential Costs Unbalanced mental workload Automation complacency Loss of situation awareness Mode error/confusion Manual skill degradation Degraded teamwork/communication

21. Automation: The Double-Edged Sword Automation often provides clear benefits Automation can also lead to novel, unanticipated problems and performance costs Which tasks should be automated and to what level for optimal control, performance, and safety? Technologists: Automate tasks as fully as technically possible—the ‘technological imperative’ Human factors engineers: Automate to an extent that balances efficiency with safety and ensures a proper role for the human in the resulting system

22. Automation Can But Does Not Always Reduce Mental Workload “Clumsy Automation”—Increases mental workload during high task load, reduces it during low task load “Cognitive Overhead”—Automation is difficult to engage, adjust, or turn off Sources: WIENER, C. E. (1988). Cockpit automation. In E. L. Wiener & D. C. Nagel (Eds.) Human factors in aviation. San Diego: Academic Press. KIRLIK, A (1993). Modeling strategic behavior in human-automation interaction: Why an “aid” can (and should) go unused. Human Factors, 35.

23. Effects of Level of Automation on Situation Awareness Levels of SA Level 1: Perception Level 2: Comprehension Level 3: Projection Source: Endsley, M., & Kiris, E. (1995). The out-of-the-loop performance Problem and level of control in automation. Human Factors, 37, 390-398.

24. EFFECTS OF LEVEL OF AUTOMATION ON OPERATOR SITUATION AWARENESS 100 90 SA LEVEL 2 (% Correct) 80 70 Manual Decision Support Consensual AI Monitored AI Full Automation LEVEL OF AUTOMATION BEFORE AUTOMATION FAILURE

25. Trust Affects Automation Usage The goal is to achieve calibrated trust that is matched to the situation Over-trust (Complacency)—Inappropriate use and over-reliance on automation Under-trust (Distrust)—Disuse or turning off of automation Source: LEE, J., & MORAY, N. (1992). Trust, control strategies, and allocation of function In human-machine systems. Ergonomics. PARASURAMAN, R., MOLLOY, R., & SINGH, I. L. (1993). Performance consequences of automation-induced "complacency." International Journal of Aviation Psychology.

26. Automation Trust and Complacency Study 24 Experienced General Aviation Pilots 2 Levels of Difficulty—Single and Multiple-Task 2 Levels of Automation (Manual, Automated) Task: Carry out primary flight and fuel management tasks manually, monitor automated engine-systems task

27. Multi-Attribute Task Battery (MAT)

28. MANUAL Human Operators Are Poor at Monitoring Automated Systems When They Are Simultaneously Engaged in Other Manual Tasks AUTOMATED 100 Cost of Automation Complacency 80 DETECTION RATE (%) 60 40 20 0 SINGLE-TASK MULTI-TASK

29. Designing for More Effective Human-Automation Interaction

30. Make Automation State Indicators and Behaviors More Salient Use Display Integration to Improve the Observability of Automation Behaviors

31. Engine Indicator and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) EPR Detecting a Malfunction Requires Manual Integration over Several Engine Parameters N1 EGT

32. N1 OP N2 ET N1 OP N2 ET N1 N1 N1 N1 OP OP OP OP N2 N2 N2 N2 ET ET ET ET NORMAL WARNING FAULT Engine Monitoring and Control System (EMACS)

33. 100 Cost of Automation Complacency MANUAL 80 Eliminated AUTOMATED 60 DETECTION RATE (%) 40 20 0 Effects of Display Integration on Human-Automation Interaction EICAS (Non-Integrated) EMACS (Integrated)

34. Source: Sklar, A. & Sarter, N. (2000). Good vibrations: Tactile feedback in support of human-automation coordination. Human Factors. Use of Multi-Modality Feedback to Enhance Human-Automation Interaction Glass Cockpit Simulator Tactile Feedback System Roll Mode Transition Autothrottle Mode Transition

35. DETECTION RATE OF UNCOMMANDED AUTOMATION MODE TRANSITIONS (%) 100 Visual Only Visual+Tactile 80 Tactile Only 60 40 MANUAL w/ FD DYNAMICAUTOPILOT

36. Summary of Human Performance • Certain automation designs can lead to unbalanced mental workload, reduced situation awareness, and miscalibrated trust and complacency • The “irony of automation” (Bainbridge, 1983)—highly reliable but imperfect automation has a greater cost than less reliable automation when the automation fails • Some of these costs can be mitigated using integrated displays, multi-modality feedback, ecological interface design, and adaptive automation

37. Evaluative Criteria: Human Performance Mental models Communication and coordination Mental workload Situation awareness Trust and complacency Cognitive skills Teamwork

38. Additional Evaluative Criteria Production and Operating Costs Automation Reliability Costs of Decision/Action Consequences Efficiency/Safety Tradeoffs Ease of System Integration Liability Issues

39. TRADITIONAL APPROACH Design Development Fielded System Operations Human Factors “Fixes” Implementing Human Factors in Automation Design HUMAN-MACHINE SYSTEMS APPROACH Design Development Fielded System Operations Human Factors Science and Engineering

40. Automation design should not consist of cleaning up the designers’ mess afterwards.