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Legal Terminology

Legal Terminology. Chapter 4. Terminology. Terminology - the study of terms and their use. Terms are words that in specific contexts are given specific meanings that may deviate from the meaning of the same words in other contexts and in everyday language.

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Legal Terminology

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  1. Legal Terminology Chapter 4

  2. Terminology • Terminology - the study of terms and their use. • Terms arewords that in specific contexts are given specific meaningsthatmay deviate from the meaning ofthe same words in other contexts and in everyday language. • Terminology studies how such terms come to be and their interrelationships within a culture. • Terminology differs fromlexicography in studying concepts, conceptual systems, and their labels (terms), whereas lexicography studieswords and their meanings.

  3. Legal concepts • Law – a socialphenomenon • Legal rulesdifferindifferentlegalorders • Legal conceptsalsodiffer

  4. Legal concepts • “…Legal sciencediffersfromthe natural sciences: thelawsof nature are the same everywhere. Thedifference is evidentintherelationshipbetweenlanguageanditsobject. Thelanguageof a natural sciencecannot change reality: if a plant is describedwrongly or inaccurately, it remains as it was none theless. But ifthelegislator, in a new law, describes a legal phenomenonotherwisethaninanearlierlaw, thenthelegalrealitychanges: lawonlyexistsin human language” (Brækhus 1956)

  5. Legal concepts • Wheretheconceptsoftwo legal systems differ, thesemanticdomainsof legal terms do notcorrespondwith one another • Historicalinteractionbetweensocieties: legal conceptsofSwedenandFinland- veryclose, sinceFinlandformedpartoftheKingdomofSweden for over 6 centuries; Englandandthe US: Englishlawwas applied intheformercolonies

  6. Legal familiesandconceptualkinship • Commonlaw • Civil law • Europeanlaw

  7. Commonlawand civil law • Civil-lawsystemdevelopedinmedievaluniversities on thebasisof Roman law; itsdivisionsandconceptsformulated first on thebasisofsubstantivelawfoundedon a numberofabstractprinciples • Commonlaw: formedinthecourtsofEnglandfollowingthe Norman Conquest; theconceptualapparatus – definedbytherequirementsofmedievaljudicial procedure

  8. Commonlawand civil law • Commonlaw – placed on judicial procedure; Englishjudges – higher status thantheircontinentalcounterparts • Europeanlaw: continuinglyunifyingthe legal ordersoftheMemberStates

  9. The Legal SystemoftheEuropeanCommunities • A legal systemofits own, partlysuperimposed on thoseofMemberStates • ThefoundingstatesoftheearlyCommunities - partofthe civil-law legal family, thelegalsystemoftheEuropeanCommunitiesalsobased on civil-lawfoundations

  10. The Legal SystemoftheEuropeanCommunities • Frenchlaw – considerablyinfluencedtheprinciplesandbasicconceptsofCommunitylaw • Methodsofthe Court ofJustice - essentiallybased on thoseoftheFrenchConseil d’Etat; theinstitutionofcommissairedugouvernementserved as a model for thatofAdvocate-General

  11. The Legal SystemoftheEuropeanCommunities • German law: principleofproportionalityandthatofreciprocalloyaltyand trust (inperformingcontracts); • The role ofacademic legal writingwhenthe ECJ takesitsdecision – a featureofthe German legal tradition

  12. The Legal SystemoftheEuropeanCommunities • English influence: doctrineofprecedent (stare decisis) developsinharmonywithcommonlawtraditionsin ECJ; • The style ofjudgments: in 1950’s and 1960’s, ECJ judgments - stylisticcopiesofFrenchjudgments, esp. intheirconstructionanddisposition (e.g. the signal wordsattenduque); over time, the style ofthe Court became more independent: constructionofitsjudgmentsdoesnotcomedirectlyfromany legal orderofMemberStates

  13. The Legal SystemoftheEuropeanCommunities • A hybrid, mixedlawinwhich legal traditionsof Europe increasinglyintertwine • Methodsofinterpretationof ECJ: a mixofdifferent legal traditions • InteractionbetweentheCommunityinstitutionsand national legal ordersin a waynotdirectlyborrowedfromany legal order

  14. The Legal SystemoftheEuropeanCommunities • Anentirely new typeof legal system, withits own characteristics, developing side bysidewith civil lawandcommonlaw; applies to legal systematizationand to doctrinerelatingtosourcesoflawandtoindividualinstitutionsandprinciples

  15. The Legal SystemoftheEuropeanCommunities • New elements - partlyevidentintheformofnewterminology, partlyhiddenbehindestablishedtermscomingchieflyfrom France; these old termspossess a new conceptualcontentinCommunitylaw

  16. Characteristicsof legal terminology: LegalConceptsandLegalTerms • Concept: mentalrepresentationofanobject • Term: thetechnicaldesignationof a concept • Term – verbalexpressionof a conceptbelonging to theconceptualsystemof a LSP; maybe a single word, compound or a phrase(e.g. “goodfaith”, “freemovementofpersons”)

  17. Characteristicsof legal terminology: LegalConceptsandLegalTerms • Terms – usuallynouns • Referent – entitythatexistsphysically or metaphysicallyandfulfilstheconditionsimposedby a concept (e.g. in France, 175 referentsoftheconceptof “general court of first instance (juridiction de droitcommundupremierdegréde l’ordrejudiciaire, expressedbytheterm “tribunal de grande instance”; bycontrast, only 1 referent connected to theconceptexpressedbytheterm “Cour de cassation”)

  18. Characteristicsof legal terminology: LegalConceptsandLegalTerms • Legal terms: • notimaginablewithout a legal relationship; • canbeusedinothercontexts, but have a particularmeaningincertain legal relationships; • express legal factsincaseswherethefeatures “to whichtheLawattacheseffectsanswer to theconditionsthattheLawimposesandthusto a legal notionthatconfers on them a meaningwithregard to theLaw (e.g. “error”)

  19. Characteristicsof legal terminology: LegalConceptsandLegalTerms • Legal termcanbe a word or phrasethatonlyappearsin legal language (“abuseofprocess”, “criminalresponsibility”), or a word or phrasethatformspartofordinarylanguage but has a specialmeaningin legal language (“consideration”)

  20. 1 concept – 2 terms: examples • Sole proprietor(US) – sole trader(UK) • Articlesofassociation(UK) – Articlesofincorporation (US) • Memorandum ofassociation(UK) – by-laws(US) • Corporatelaw(US) – companylaw(UK) • Tort (English) – delict (Scottish)

  21. How do termsandconcepts work inlaw? • Adversepossessionincommonlaw: a situationwheresomeonewithoutbeingowneracquiresunderspecificcircumstancesfull title to landagainst all othersincludingtherecordowner • To benefitfromthis, certainactsoveranuninterrupted period of time prescribedby statute are necessary

  22. Adversepossession • Suchpossession must beactual, visible, open, notorious, hostile, underclaimofright, definite, continuousandexclusive

  23. Adversepossession • 1) factualconstellationsinwhichpersonsoccupylandwhichdoesnotbelong to them • 2) circumstancesoftheacquisitionofpropertyby a non-ownerinanexceptionalsituation

  24. Exceptionalsituation: requirements • 1) Legal constellations, like mortgage, which do notlead to adversepossession • Theconceptenables a regularargumentationinacaserelated to acquisitionofpropertyunderexceptionalcircumstances • Theargumentation must take place withintheindicated set ofsituations • Thesesituations must betestedtowardsthebackgroundoftheconceptsprovidedbythedoctrine to excludeabuse (exceptiontothe general rulethatprotectstherightfulowner)

  25. Adversepossession • Theconceptsusedinthe test must beinterpreted • Interpretingtheconceptsfollowstheguidelinesofthedoctrine, sometimesexpressedindefinitions

  26. Adversepossession • Thepossession is: • notoriouswhen it is open, undisguisedandconspicuous • Hostilewhen it takes place withoutthepermissionofanyoneclaimingparamount title and is coupledwiththeclaimofownership, express or implied, against all othersincludingtherecordowner (e.g. lease is not a caseofhostilepossession)

  27. Adversepossession • Requirements for professional argumentationwhichmaynotbeaccessible to non-jurists • It must passthe test ofrationalitywithinthe legal community • Bothsituationalandconceptualrequirementsofcompleteness are necessary to maketheconceptualstructure work in legal argumentation • Thefinal test – thetestofrationalitypassedwithinthe legal community

  28. Relativeexistenceof legal notions: discovery • Theexistenceof a legal notiondependsuponthewishofthelegislator • Whenthecomparativelawyer is dealingwiththecommonlaw procedure ofdiscoveryin a caseinvolvinga court in a civil lawcountry he willnotsimplyintroducethenotionofdiscoveryinto his systemicknowledgeofthisparticular civil law but perceive it as partoftheother, foreignlawsystem

  29. discovery • He willnotapplytheproceduresofdiscoverybecausethey do notexist as longasthey are notanchoredinthe legal systembythelegislator • Thisanchoragemaybeconstitutedbythedecision to introducediscoveryintothisparticular civil lawsystem, or it maybe a resultofaprovisionrelated to theconflictoflaws, or a resultoflegislationconcerningrecognitionofforeignjudgments

  30. Relativeexistenceof legal notions • Existing legal notionscanbemodified, replacedbyothers or abolished • Connectionsbetweentermandconcept – arbitrary

  31. Impliedtermsandconcepts • Whathappenswhen a commonlawterme.g. punitivedamagesistranslated as condamnation à dommages et intérêtspunitifs or Strafschadensersatz – unknownintheFrenchor German legal systems

  32. Impliedtermsandconcepts • E.g. Verhältnissmässigkeitsgrundsatzintroduced as principe de proportionnalitéintoFrench-language legal actswithinthe EU although it doesnotexistintheFrenchterminology

  33. Emergenceof new legal-linguisticunits • A new torttermedintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistress–added to the list ofcommonlawtorts • Japaneselawdistinguishesbetweeninjury to honorandinjurytoreputation • Understandingof legal terminology - baseduponinstitutionlizedcreationandinterpretationoflegalconceptsandterms, mainlybythelegislatorandbycourts

  34. Classificationofterms • Technical: promissoryestoppel, renvoi, certiorari • Meaningdifferentfromordinarylanguage: consideration, equity • Overlappingconcepts: domicile in UK and USA • Preferences: warrantypreferredin US, guaranteein UK; antitrustlegislation(US), competitionlegislation(UK), corporation (US), company (UK)

  35. Scientifictermsintroducedintolaw • Termsfromothersciencesintroducedintostatutes • Do theyretaintheirmeaning? • Inthe materials accompaningpreparatory work intheParliament, interpretiveguidelines, definitionsandotherinformation is containedwhichallowstheinterpretationof a conceptwhen it becomespartof a statute • The materials mayintroduce a specificmeaning, broader or narrowerthanthescientific one

  36. Scientifictermsintroducedintolaw • Medicaltermse.g. alchoholic or drug addictmaybeunderstoodinlawdifferently • Thescientifictermbecoming a legal termmayacquire a differentmeaning

  37. The legal ‘shall’ • Anypersonbidding at theauctionshallstandsurety for his own debtuntilfullpayment is made for purchasedmerchandise • Shall – thebindingcharacter • Institutesthe legal speechactandintroducesthebindingforceoftheutterance, i.e. it establishesitsenforceability

  38. The legal ‘may’ • Incertaincircumstances a police officermayaskthedriver to take a breath test • Ifconvicted, anaccusedpersonmayappeal • May = ‘haveright to’

  39. Polysemy • Term – a verbalexpressionofaconcept • Legal terms – oftencharacterizedbypolysemy: depending on context, a singletermcan express severalconcepts • Polysemy - “allowsthevocabularyofthelanguage to transmittheinfinitelyvariedideasthat arise insocial life” (Vlasenko 1997)

  40. Polysemy • Ruleratherthanexception • Legal orders are continuallychangingover time • Example: ius civile

  41. Ius civile • Ancient Rome : referred to classical Roman law as opposed to iushonorarium on the one hand, and, on theother, to thelaw applied to Roman citizens (as opposed to iusgentium) • InByzantium, inmedieval Europe and at thebeginningofmoderntimes – referred to Roman lawand to temporal State law, as opposed to the divine law (iusdivinum) or natural law (ius naturale)

  42. Ius civile • Inmedieval Europe, legal sciencefocused on thestudyofthosepartsoftheCorpusiuriscivilisdealingwith legal relationshipsbetweenprivateindividuals; a branchoflawrelative to relationsbetweenprivateindividuals

  43. Ius civile • InEnglish: • Roman law • Continentallaw • Privatelaw

  44. Ius civile • InGermany: ZivilrechtsynonymouswithPrivatrecht • In France, commerciallaw is notincludedin civil law

  45. Orderlyanddisorderlypolysemy • Orderly (consistent) polysemy: a legal termhastwo or threecloselyconnectedmeanings; often: theconceptsexpressedby a term are hierarchical or partlyoverlapping • Example: commonlaw: 3 meaningsinEnglish; misleadingfromtheinternationalstandpoint

  46. Commonlaw • Englishcommonlaw – differentfromthe pan-Europeaniuscommune • Englishcommonlaw – developedbyEnglishcourts • Iuscommune – lawdevelopedinEuropeanuniversitiesintheMiddleAgesandearlymoderntimes

  47. Disorderly (inconsistent) polysemy • Meaningsofthetermdiverge to suchextentthatthey no longerhaveanythingincommon • French “prescription” and “disposition” • Prescription: 1) differentmodesofacquisition or extinction, 2) judicialorder or a legal rule • Disposition: 1) action to disposeof a good; 2) legal rule, a contractclause, or a headinthe operative partof a judgment

  48. ConsequencesofPolysemy • When p. occurs, interpretersofthetextshouldbeable to assignto a termthemeaningappropriate to thecontext • Often – easy to distinguishbetweendifferentmeanings; sometimes – impossibletotellwhat is thecorrectinterpretationofthetext: ambiguity

  49. Synonymy • Opposite to polysemy: two or severalterms express the same concept • E.g., wheremagistratesarrangeaninspection on the scene, legal Frenchuses: “visite deslieux”, “transport sure les lieus”, “descente sur les lieux”, or “vuedeslieux” • Synonymy – a commonfeatureof legal terms

  50. Synonymy • In legal languageswithseverallayersoflanguage, such as English, this is especiallyfrequent • Legal Englishoftenexpressesthe same conceptbyan Anglo-Saxonterm, a Frenchterm, anda Latin term

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