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Speech Production. Sounds of humans. Sounds of human languages. Speech sounds. Manner Class. Number. Number Polish. Vowels. 18. Fricatives. 8. 8. Stops. 6. 9. 6. Nasals. 3. 4. Semivowels. 4. 3. 6. Affricates. 2. 1. Aspirant. 1.
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Sounds of humans Sounds of human languages
Speech sounds Manner Class Number Number Polish Vowels 18 Fricatives 8 8 Stops 6 9 6 Nasals 3 4 Semivowels 4 3 6 Affricates 2 1 Aspirant 1 • There are over 40 speech sounds in American English which can be organized by their basic manner of production • Vowels, glides, and consonants differ in degree of constriction• • Sonorant consonants have no pressure build up at constriction (opposite to obstruents) • Nasal consonants lower the velum allowing airflow in nasal cavity (opposite to orals) • Continuant consonants do not block airflow in oral cavity (opposite to stops)
SAMPA American English Consonants:24 Symbol Word Transcription p pin pIn b bin bIn t tin tIn d din dIn k kin kIn g give gIv tS chin tSIn dZ gin dZIn f fin fIn v vim vIm T thin TIn D this DIs s sin sIn z zing zIN S shin SIn Z measure "mEZ@` h hit hIt m mock mAk n knock nAk N thing TIN r wrong rON l long lON w wasp wAsp j yacht jAt Vowels:17 I pit pIt E pet pEt { pat p{t A pot pAt V cut kVt U put pUt i ease iz e raise rez u lose luz o nose noz O cause kOz aI rise raIz OI noise nOIz aU rouse raUz 3` furs f3`z @ allow @"laU @` corner "kOrn@`
SAMPA Polish Vowels The vowel system comprises 8 phonemes, as follows. Those symbolized with ~ are nasalized. SAMPA symbol Orthography Transcription i PIT pit I typ tIp e test test a pat pat o pot pot u puk puk e~ gęś ge~s' o~ wąs vo~s Consonants The consonant system comprises 29 phonemes, as follows. The symbol ' indicates palatalization. p pik pik b bit bit t test test d dym dIm k kit kit g gen gen f fan fan v wilk vilk s syk sIk z zbir zbir S szyk SIk Z żyto ZIto s' świt s'vit z' źle z'le x hymn xImn ts cyk tsIk dz dzwon dzvon tS czyn tSIn dZ dżem dZem ts' ćma ts'ma dz' dźwig dz'vik m mysz mIS n nasz naS n' koń kon' N pęk peNk l luk luk r ryk rIk w łyk wIk j jak jak
Types of sounds • Sound classification is based on manner and place of articulation – where the consttriction in the vocal tract is and where the sound is generated • Manner of articulation: • Vowels • Plosives /p/, /g/ • Nasals - /m/, /n/ • Taps or trills /r/ • Fricatives -/s/, /f/, /v/ • Approximants - /j/ /w/ • Place of articulation: • Bilabial • Labiodental • Dental, Alveolar, Postalveolar • Retroflex • Palatal • Velar • Uvular • Pharyngeal • Glottal
Places of articulation palatal velar post-alveoar alveoar labial uvular dental
Bilabial • The articulators are the two lips. (We could say that the lower lip is the active articulator and the upper lip the passive articulator, though the upper lip usually moves too, at least a little.) English bilabial sounds include [p], [b], and [m].
labio-dental • The lower lip is the active articulator and the upper teeth are the passive articulator. English labio-dental sounds include [f] and [v].
dental • Dental sounds[s] [z] [n] involve the upper teeth as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be either the tongue tip or (usually) the tongue blade -- diacritic symbols can be used if it matters which. Extreme lamino-dental sounds are often called interdental. English interdental sounds include [Q] and [d]
alveolar • Alveolar sounds involve the alveolar ridge as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be either the tongue blade or (usually) the tongue tip -- diacritic symbols can be used if it matters which. English alveolar sounds include [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l].
postalveolar • Postalveolar sounds involve the area just behind the alveolar ridge as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be either the tongue tip or (usually) the tongue blade -- diacritic symbols can be used if it matters which. English postalveolars include [S ] and [Z ], Polish [s’, ts’] • Linguists have traditionally used very inconsistent terminology in referring to the postalveolar POA. Some of the terms you may encounter for it include: palato-alveolar, alveo-palatal, alveolo-palatal, and even (especially among English-speakers) palatal. Many insist that palato-alveolar and alveo(lo)-palatal are two different things -- though they don't agree which is which. "Postalveolar", the official term used by the International Phonetic Association, is unambiguous, not to mention easier to spell.
retroflex • In retroflex sounds, the tongue tip is curled up and back. Retroflexes can be classed as apico-postalveolar, though not all apico-postalveolars need to be curled backward enough to count as retroflex. The closest sound to a retroflex that English has is [r]. For most North Americans, the tongue tip is curled back in [r], though not as much as it is in languages that have true retroflexes. Many other North Americans use what is called a "bunched r" -- instead of curling their tongues back, they bunch the front up and push it forward to form an approximant behind the alveolar ridge.
palatal • The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the hard palate. The English glide [j] is a palatal.
velar • The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the soft palate. English velars include [k], [g], and [N ]. • glottal • This isn't strictly a place of articulation, but they had to put it in the chart somewhere. Glottal sounds are made in the larynx. For the glottal stop, the vocal cords close momentarily and cut off all airflow through the vocal tract. English uses the glottal stop in the interjection uh-uh (meaning 'no'). In [h], the vocal cords are open, but close enough together that air passing between them creates friction noise.
Manners of articulation I • Constriction degree Place of articulation refers to where the narrowing occurs -- which active articulator gets close to which passive articulator. Constriction degree refers to how close they get. The main constriction degrees are: • stop: the active articulator touches the passive articulator and completely cuts off the airflow through the mouth. English stops include: [p], [d], [k], [m]. • fricative: the active articulator doesn't touch the passive articulator, but gets close enough that the airflow through the opening becomes turbulent. English fricatives include [f], [z]. • approximant: the active articulator approaches the passive articulator, but doesn't even get close enough for the airflow to become turbulent. English approximants include [j], [w], [r ], and [l]. • affricate: Affricates can be seen as a sequence of a stop and a fricative which have the same or similar places of articulation. They are transcribed using the symbols for the stop and the fricative. If one wants to emphasize the affricate as a "single" sound, a tie symbol can be used to join the stop and the fricative (sometimes the fricative is written as a superscript). • Notes: • A stop cuts off airflow through the mouth. Airflow through the nose does not matter -- you can have both oral and nasal stops. Oral stops are often called plosives, including in the IPA chart. Nasal stops are usually just call ed nasals. • Approximants that are apical or laminal are often called liquids (e.g., [ r], [l]). Approximants that correspond to vowels are often called glides (e.g., [j] corresponds to [i], [w] to [u]). • English has the affricates [t ] and [d ]. The stop and the fricative halves of these affricates are at the same place of articulation: the stop is in fact postalveolar rather than alveolar. We could be explicit about this and underline the [t] and [d] (in IPA, a minus sign under a symbol is a diacritic meaning "pronounced further back in the mouth"), but most phoneticians believe this difference in the place of articulation is so predictable that it doesn't have to be marked.
Manners of articulation II • State of the glottis For now, we can simply use the terms "voiced" and "voiceless" to answer the question of what the vocal cords are doing: • In voiced sounds, the vocal cords are vibrating. • In voiceless sounds, the vocal cords are not vibrating. • Ultimately, we will see there are different ways of being voiced or voiceless. The vocal cords can do a number of things. They can: • be held so wide apart that the air makes no sound passing through them. (This is nice when you have to breathe 24 hours a day, but not as useful for speaking.) • be held closer together, so that the air passing through them becomes turbulent. This quality of sound is called breathiness. It is what is happening in aspiration and in the sound [h]. • be held together so that the air passing through them causes them to vibrate. This is called voicing. • be held together so tightly that no air can pass through at all, as in a glottal stop. • By varying their tension and position, the vocal cords can also produce many other effects like breathy voicing, creaky voicing, and falsetto.
Manners of articulation III • What the vocal cords are doing is independent of what the higher parts of the vocal tract are doing. For any place of articulation and any degree of stricture, you can get two different sounds: voiced and voiceless. For example, [t] and [d] are formed identically in the mouth; the difference is that the vocal cords vibrate during a [d] but not during a [t]. (The obvious exception is the glottal place of articulation -- you can't vibrate your vocal cords while making a glottal stop.) • In each cell of the IPA chart, the symbol for the voiceless sound is shown to the left and that for the voiced sound to the right. Some rows only have voiced symbols (e.g., nasals and approximants). You can write the corresponding voiceless sound using the voiceless diacritic (a circle under the voiced symbol).
Manners of articulation IV • Nasality • The soft palate can be lowered, allowing air to flow out through the nose, or it can be raised to block nasal airflow. As was the case with the vocal cords, what the soft palate is doing is independent the other articulators. For almost any place of articulation, there are pairs of stops that differ only in whether the soft palate is raised, as in the oral stop [d], or lowered, as in the nasal stop [n]. • Laterality • When you form an [l], your tongue tip touches your alveolar ridge (or maybe your upper teeth) but it doesn't create a stop because one or both sides of the tongue are lowered so that air can flow out along the side. Sounds like this with airflow along the sides of the tongue are called lateral, all others are called central (though we usually just assume that a sound is central unless we explicitly say it's lateral). • The side of the tongue can lower to different degrees. It can lower so little that the air passing through becomes turbulent (giving a lateral fricative) or it can lower enough for there to be no turbulence (a lateral approximant). The [l] of English is a lateral approximant. • Airstream mechanism • Speech sounds need air to move. Most sounds (including all the sounds of English) are created by modifying a stream of air that is pushed outward from the lungs. But it's possible for the air to be set in motion in other ways. Sounds which use one of the other three most common airstream mechanisms are called ejectives, implosives, and clicks.
Manners of articulation V active articulator tongue body (dorsum) passive articulator soft palate (velum) constriction degree stop state of glottis voiceless nasal no lateral no airstream mechanism normal • Describing consonant segments • A consonant sound can be described completely by specifying each of the parameters for place and manner of articulation. For example, [k] has the following properties: • So [k] is a voiceless oral central dorso-velar stop.
IPA full chart • http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/ipa-lab.htm
Affricates • There are two affricates in English: voiceless /tS/ and voiced /dZ/. In a sense the affricates are just a combination of a voiceless unaspirated alveolar plosive (/t/ or /d/) with a palato-alveolar fricative (/S/ or /Z/). But there are several reasons for considering these combinations as phonemes in their own right: • The affricates are the only example of a stop plus fricative combination which can occur in syllable-initial position in English. • We have an orthographic combination `ch' for one of the two affricates which contains different letters from either of the constituent phones, showing that we think of `ch' as a separate phoneme unit. • The spectrographic realization of the stop + fricative combination is different from what one would expect if it were really two phonemes.
Consonant chart bilabial labio-dental dental alveolar postalveolar retroflex palatal velar stop fricative nasal approximant ( ) ( ) affricate
Vowels I • Vowels are classified by the highest point reached by the tongue body in the vertical and horizontal dimensions. We typically divide these dimensions into three slices: • height • high • mid • low • frontness/backness • front • central • back
Vowels II • Voicing: As with consonants, the vocal cords may or may not be vibrating regardless of what the rest of the vocal tract is doing. Vowels are almost always voiced. But a few languages have contrastive voiceless vowels (Islandic). English has a few environments where vowels may be (non-contrastively) voiceless. • Nasalisation: As with consonants, air may or may not be flowing through the nose, regardless of what the tongue or lips may be doing. Vowels tend to be oral, but many languages also have a set of nasal vowels (e.g., French). English has a few environments where vowels may be (non-contrastively) nasalized. • The tongue tip may be curled back to perform a retroflex approximant, whatever the tongue body is doing. The "R-colouring" that this adds to the vowel is often called rhoticization. • Rounding • The lips may either be in their normal position or they may be rounded. The English vowels [u], [u ], [o], and [o ] are rounded. The rest are unrounded. • Tense and lax • Tense vowels tend to have the position of the tongue body slightly higher than the corresponding lax vowels. • Lax vowels tend to be more centralized than the corresponding tense vowels (i.e., closer to schwa in the front/back dimension).
Glides • Many of the parameters for consonants are also relevant for vowels (e.g., state of the glottis, nasality). Even the basic constriction parameters can be relevant: • active articulator • passive articulator • constriction degree • Since vowels are partly defined by the highest point reached by the tongue body, it makes sense to think of the tongue body as the active articulator. For high vowels, the tongue body is narrowing the vocal tract, so it makes sense to ask what passive articulator the narrowing is closest to and what the degree of constriction is. For high front vowels, the tongue body approaches the hard palate. For high back vowels, the tongue body approaches the soft palate. The vocal tract is narrowed, but not so much as to cause the airflow to become turbulent -- so the degree of constriction is approximant. • [j] or [w] – movement of articulators
Diphtongs • In simple vowels, or monophthongs, the tongue body has a relatively stable position throughout. Complex vowels which are characterized by movement are called diphthongs. F2 F1
Acoustic properties of articulation affricates Excitation: periodic - aperiodic (noise orpulse) noise, continuous spectrum relatively high energy in HF Level of formants Noise duration high low relatively constant formant frequencies impulse short long Formant movement nasals fast vowels glides fricatives plosives
Acoustic properties of articulation Level of formants transient F2 noise range glides vowels next slide F2 high - front F2 high- /j/ F2 low -back F2 middle- /l/ F1 high -low F2 low - /w/ F1 low -high
Acoustic properties of articulation transient F2 noise range stops and nasals affricates fricatives stops and affricates fricatives up – /s/ up – alveolar down -labial high - /s/ up - palatal low - S high-palatal mixed directions– back-palatal wide - /f,x/ Low-labial
