Chapter 2

1. Chapter 2 FOCUS QUESTION: WHAT ARE DATA?

2. Objectives: • Data • Individuals • Population • Sample • Variables • Categorical (or qualitative) • Quantitative

3. Data • Definition • Data: (latin for fact) Characteristics or numbers that are collected by observation. Data are numbers with context. • What Are Data? • Data can be numbers, record names, or other labels. • Not all data represented by numbers are numerical data (e.g., 1 = male, 2 = female). • Data are useless without their context…

4. The “W’s” • To provide context we need the W’s • Who • What (and in what units) • When • Where • Why (if possible) • and How of the data. • Note: the answers to “who” and “what” are essential.

5. Data Tables • The following data table clearly shows the context of the data presented: • Notice that this data table tells us the What (column) and Who (row) for these data.

6. The first step in understanding data is to answer the W’sWho, What, When, Where, Why, and How • Who – Who are the individuals? Individuals: (people, objects, etc.) that we are trying to gain information about. In order to make decisions, we need to know what our population of interest is and whether our data are representative of that population.

7. Who • The Who of the data tells us the individual casesfor which (or whom) we have collected data. • Individuals who answer a survey are called respondents. • People on whom we experiment are called subjectsor participants. • Animals, plants, and inanimate subjects are called experimental units. • Sometimes people just refer to data values as observationsand are not clear about the Who. • But we need to know the Who of the data so we can learn what the data say.

8. Sample Definitions Population A complete set of individuals being observed or of interest. This Class This School KingsCounty USA A subset of the population selected according to some scheme to represent the population. Population – this class Sample – 5 students selected from the class

9. What and Why • What– What variables were recorded about each of the individuals? • Variables are characteristics recorded about each individual. • The variables should have a name that identify What has been measured. • To understand variables, you must Think about what you want to know. EX: Data – Student data base (includes data on each student enrolled). Individuals – students Variables – DOB, Gender, GPA, etc.

10. What and Why (cont.) • Some variables have units that tell how each value has been measured and tell the scale of the measurement.

11. What and Why (cont.) Two Types of Variables • A categorical (or qualitative) variable names categories and answers questions about how cases fall into those categories. • Categorical examples: sex, race, ethnicity • A quantitative variable is a measured variable (with units) that answers questions about the quantity of what is being measured. • Quantitative examples: income ($), height (inches), weight (pounds)

12. Quantitative (numerical) Types of Variables Categorical (qualitative) Values that fall into separate, nonover-lapping groups such as marital status or hair color. Data that can be counted and put in a specific order. Numerical values are categorical when it makes no sense to find an average for them – zip codes, jersey numbers, etc. Values for which arithmetic operations such as adding and averaging make sense. Data that can be measured. Values that have measurement units such as dollars, degrees, inches, etc.

13. What and Why (cont.) • The questions we ask a variable (the Why of our analysis) shape what we think about and how we treat the variable.

14. Def: Distribution • The pattern of variation of a variable. • What values a variable takes and how often it takes these values.

15. What and Why (cont.) • Example: In a student evaluation of instruction at a large university, one question asks students to evaluate the statement “The instructor was generally interested in teaching” on the following scale: 1 = Disagree Strongly; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Neutral; 4 = Agree; 5 = Agree Strongly. • Question: Is interest in teaching categorical or quantitative?

16. What and Why (cont.) • Question: Is interest in teaching categorical or quantitative? • We sense an order to these ratings, but there are no natural units for the variable interest in teaching. • Variables like interest in teaching are often called ordinal variables. • With an ordinal variable, look at the Why of the study to decide whether to treat it as categorical or quantitative.

17. Counts Count • When we count the cases in each category of a categorical variable, the counts are not the data, but something we summarize about the data. • The category labels are the What, and • the individuals counted are the Who.

18. Counts Count (cont.) • When we focus on the amount of something, we use counts differently. For example, Amazon might track the growth in the number of teenage customers each month to forecast CD sales (the Why). • The What is teens, the Who is months, and the units are number of teenage customers.

19. Identifying Identifiers • Identifier variables are categorical variables with exactly one individual in each category. • Examples: Social Security Number, ISBN, FedEx Tracking Number • Don’t be tempted to analyze identifier variables. • Be careful not to consider all variables with one case per category, like year, as identifier variables. • The Why will help you decide how to treat identifier variables.

20. Where, When, and How • We need the Who,What, and Why to analyze data. But, the more we know, the more we understand. • When and Where give us some nice information about the context. • Example: Values recorded at a large public university may mean something different than similar values recorded at a small private college.

21. Where, When, and How (cont.) • How the data are collected can make the difference between insight and nonsense. • Example: results from Internet surveys are often useless • The first step of any data analysis should be to examine the W’s—this is a key part of the Think step of any analysis. • And, make sure that you know the Why, Who, and What before you proceed with your analysis.

22. What Can Go Wrong? • Don’t label a variable as categorical or quantitative without thinking about the question you want it to answer. • Just because your variable’s values are numbers, don’t assume that it’s quantitative. • Always be skeptical—don’t take data for granted.

23. What have we learned? • Data are information in a context. • The W’s help with context. • We must know the Who (cases), What (variables), and Why to be able to say anything useful about the data.

24. What have we learned? (cont.) • We treat variables as categorical or quantitative. • Categorical variables identify a category for each case. • Quantitative variables record measurements or amounts of something and must have units. • Some variables can be treated as categorical or quantitative depending on what we want to learn from them.

25. Example #1 A January 2007 Gallup Poll question asked, “In general, do you think things have gotten better or gotten worse in this country in the last 5 years?” Possible answers were “Better”, “Worse”, “No Change”, “Don’t Know”, and “No Response”. What kind of variable is the response? Solution: Mood – Categorical variable.

26. Your Turn: A medical researcher measures the increase in heart rate of patients under a stress test. What kind of variable is the researcher studying? Solution: Stress – Quantitative variable.

27. Example #2 For the following description of data, identify the W’s, name the variable, specify for each variable whether its use indicates that it should be treated as categorical or quantitative, and, for any quantitative variable, identify the units in which it was measured. The State Education Department requires local school districts to keep these records on all students: age, race, days absent, current grade level, standardized test scores in reading and math, and any disabilities. Solution: Who – Students What – Age (probably in years), Race, Number of absences, Grade Level, Reading score, Math score, Disabilities. When – Must be kept current. Where – Not specified. Why – State required. How – Information collected and stored as part of school records. Categorical Variables: Race, grade level, disablities Quantitative Variables: Number of absences, age, reading score, math score.

28. Your Turn: For the following description of data, identify the W’s, name the variable, specify for each variable whether its use indicates that it should be treated as categorical or quantitative, and, for any quantitative variable, identify the units in which it was measured. The Gallup Poll conducted a representative telephone survey of 1180 American voters during the first quarter of 2007. Among the reported results were the voters region (Northeast, South, etc.), age, party affiliation, and whether or not the person had voted in the 2006 midterm congressional election. Solution: Who – 1180 Americans. What – Region, age (in years), political affiliation, and whether or not the person voted. When – First quarter 2007. Where – United States Why – Gallup public opinion poll. How – Telephone survey. Categorical Variables: Region, political affiliation, whether or not the person voted. Quantitative Variable: Age.

29. Final Thought on Data