Religious Fundamentalism

1. 1 Religious Fundamentalism Yee Wah Foo Email: ywfoo@lincoln.ac.uk

2. 2 Awareness When I was growing up, I was always taught that polite company never discussed religion or politics! (And certainly not at the same time) But in this age of post 9/11 we seem to be increasingly aware, that politics and religion are not only inextricably linked, but that they have become part of our everyday lives � and we discuss the issues openly � and consider them important. Almost every newspaper you read, or radio program you listen to, will have some feature that is connected to religious fundamentalism � whether it be a debate on issues concerning terrorism, immigration, or civil rights. In this lecture I shall discuss some of the main themes of RF, including the relationship between religion and politics � whether or not politics and religion are divided; the fundamentalist impulse � that is what attracts people to their particular fundamentalism; the anti-modern characteristics of fundamentalism, and the relationship between fundamentalism and militancy. Finally, we discuss two different fundamentalisms, Islamic fundamentalism, and Christian fundamentalism, and end with some (thought provoking) questions for your seminars. When I was growing up, I was always taught that polite company never discussed religion or politics! (And certainly not at the same time) But in this age of post 9/11 we seem to be increasingly aware, that politics and religion are not only inextricably linked, but that they have become part of our everyday lives � and we discuss the issues openly � and consider them important. Almost every newspaper you read, or radio program you listen to, will have some feature that is connected to religious fundamentalism � whether it be a debate on issues concerning terrorism, immigration, or civil rights. In this lecture I shall discuss some of the main themes of RF, including the relationship between religion and politics � whether or not politics and religion are divided; the fundamentalist impulse � that is what attracts people to their particular fundamentalism; the anti-modern characteristics of fundamentalism, and the relationship between fundamentalism and militancy. Finally, we discuss two different fundamentalisms, Islamic fundamentalism, and Christian fundamentalism, and end with some (thought provoking) questions for your seminars.

3. 3 Religious Fundamentalism Not concerned with any specific religion A style of political thought, rather than a collection of ideas and values Some scholars argue that religious fundamentalism is merely a �sub-species� of the ideology of nationalism Religious fundamentalism is very different from other ideologies; it is not concerned with any specific religion. It cuts across all the religions, regardless of their differences. In the study of RF we think of the subject as a single entity and we do not differ between the differences that divide religions of the world. For example whether or not the different religions believe in one god, many gods, or what scriptures they use, or how they view morality or social conduct. It is also recognised that whilst some fundamentalisms have been associated with violence and anti-constitutional politics, others have supported law-abiding, peaceful behaviour. So to recap: RF is a STYLE of political thought, rather than a collection of ideas and values. Given all the differences between the world�s religions you may feel that it is odd that these different doctrines can constitute, or make up, a political ideology. In fact some thinkers would even call RF a sub-species of the ideology of nationalism. In this talk we will discuss some of the main themes of RF, including the relationship between Religion and Politics � whether or not politics and religion are divided; The fundamentalist impulse � that is what attracts people to their particular fundamentalism; the anti-modern characteristics of fundamentalism, and the relationship between fundamentalism and militancy. Finally we discuss two different fundamentalisms, Islamic fundamentalism, and Christian fundamentalism, and end with some thought provoking questions for your seminars. Religious fundamentalism is very different from other ideologies; it is not concerned with any specific religion. It cuts across all the religions, regardless of their differences. In the study of RF we think of the subject as a single entity and we do not differ between the differences that divide religions of the world. For example whether or not the different religions believe in one god, many gods, or what scriptures they use, or how they view morality or social conduct. It is also recognised that whilst some fundamentalisms have been associated with violence and anti-constitutional politics, others have supported law-abiding, peaceful behaviour. So to recap: RF is a STYLE of political thought, rather than a collection of ideas and values. Given all the differences between the world�s religions you may feel that it is odd that these different doctrines can constitute, or make up, a political ideology. In fact some thinkers would even call RF a sub-species of the ideology of nationalism. In this talk we will discuss some of the main themes of RF, including the relationship between Religion and Politics � whether or not politics and religion are divided; The fundamentalist impulse � that is what attracts people to their particular fundamentalism; the anti-modern characteristics of fundamentalism, and the relationship between fundamentalism and militancy. Finally we discuss two different fundamentalisms, Islamic fundamentalism, and Christian fundamentalism, and end with some thought provoking questions for your seminars.

4. 4 Fundamentalist Principles Fundamentalists see religion as a set of firm principles that cannot be challenged Such principles should be the guiding light in issues such as personal conduct and the organisation of social, economic and political life �Politics is religion� (Ayatollah Khomeini) R. Fundamentalism sees religion as a set of firm principles that cannot be challenged, and that , these principles should be the guiding light in issues such as personal conduct and the organisation of social, economic and political life. The important thing about fundamentalism is that there is no difference between religion and politics. As the Ayatollah Khomeini said: Politics is religion�. - So there�s no divide between politics and religion. R. Fundamentalism sees religion as a set of firm principles that cannot be challenged, and that , these principles should be the guiding light in issues such as personal conduct and the organisation of social, economic and political life. The important thing about fundamentalism is that there is no difference between religion and politics. As the Ayatollah Khomeini said: Politics is religion�. - So there�s no divide between politics and religion.

5. 5 Public/private divide In the West, politics in religion has been restricted by the spread of our liberal culture and ideas Thus, there is a public/private divide But, fundamentalism�s refusal to accept that religion is a personal matter, is that which establishes its ideological credentials �Existing structures must be replaced with a comprehensive system based on religious principles� Of course in the West, politics in religion was restricted by the spread of our liberal culture and ideas. This does not mean an anti-religious tendency, but rather, the idea that there is a division between religion and politics. We say then, that there is a public/private divide. The advantage of this idea � from a liberal perspective, is that it guarantees individual liberty by placing constraints on the govt�s ability to interfere in personal or private affairs. For religion, this means that it must be fenced in to a private role � leaving politics to be dealt with on a strictly secular, or non-religious way. Thus RF�s refusal to accept that religion is merely a private or personal matter, is that which establishes its ideological credentials. To treat religion only as a personal or spiritual matter is for religious fundamentalists, to invite evil and corruption to the public domain. So RF is simple � the world must be made anew, and existing structures replaced with a comprehensive system based on religious principles embracing the economy, politics, society and culture. Of course in the West, politics in religion was restricted by the spread of our liberal culture and ideas. This does not mean an anti-religious tendency, but rather, the idea that there is a division between religion and politics. We say then, that there is a public/private divide. The advantage of this idea � from a liberal perspective, is that it guarantees individual liberty by placing constraints on the govt�s ability to interfere in personal or private affairs. For religion, this means that it must be fenced in to a private role � leaving politics to be dealt with on a strictly secular, or non-religious way. Thus RF�s refusal to accept that religion is merely a private or personal matter, is that which establishes its ideological credentials. To treat religion only as a personal or spiritual matter is for religious fundamentalists, to invite evil and corruption to the public domain. So RF is simple � the world must be made anew, and existing structures replaced with a comprehensive system based on religious principles embracing the economy, politics, society and culture.

6. 6 The Fundamentalist Impulse Fundamentalism refers to a commitment of ideas and values seen to be �basic�, or �foundational� These principles are seen to be enduring and unchanging in character, And they usually derive from spiritual texts claiming the true word of God Fundamentalism refers to a commitment to ideas and values that are seen as basic � or foundational. Also, these founding principles are seen to be enduring and unchanging in character. We might even say � inflexible. In the case of RF, the �fundamentals� have usually come from spiritual texts, particularly all the �three religions of the book�, Christianity, Islam and Judaism. All of these religions have sacred texts that have claimed to possess the true word of God. American Protestant fundamentalism, for example, has continued to preach the belief that man was created by God as described in the Book of Genesis, and forcefully rejects Charles Darwin�s theory of evolution. Fundamentalism refers to a commitment to ideas and values that are seen as basic � or foundational. Also, these founding principles are seen to be enduring and unchanging in character. We might even say � inflexible. In the case of RF, the �fundamentals� have usually come from spiritual texts, particularly all the �three religions of the book�, Christianity, Islam and Judaism. All of these religions have sacred texts that have claimed to possess the true word of God. American Protestant fundamentalism, for example, has continued to preach the belief that man was created by God as described in the Book of Genesis, and forcefully rejects Charles Darwin�s theory of evolution.

7. 7 Religious fundamentalism� Has a proven ability to generate political activism and mobilise the faithful Can offer certainty in an uncertain world Displaces socialism as the creed of political renewal and social justice Works on both psychological and social levels No political blueprint Perhaps one of the greatest strengths of fundamentalism, as demonstrated by the growth of fundamentalist movements since the late 20thC is in its ability to generate political activism and mobilize the faithful. Psychologically RF can offer certainty in an uncertain world. Being religious, it can offer an answer to deep and perplexing problems. Being fundamentalist it provides solution that are practical and straightforward � and more importantly, absolute. Socially its appeal has extended to educated and professional classes, but it offers answers in particular to the politically and economically disadvantaged. In a way, it displaces socialism as the creed of political renewal and social justice. Therefore, RF works on both psychological and social levels. There is no political blueprint for fundamentalism, and its leaders are invariably forced to improvise and borrow from existing political traditions. Perhaps one of the greatest strengths of fundamentalism, as demonstrated by the growth of fundamentalist movements since the late 20thC is in its ability to generate political activism and mobilize the faithful. Psychologically RF can offer certainty in an uncertain world. Being religious, it can offer an answer to deep and perplexing problems. Being fundamentalist it provides solution that are practical and straightforward � and more importantly, absolute. Socially its appeal has extended to educated and professional classes, but it offers answers in particular to the politically and economically disadvantaged. In a way, it displaces socialism as the creed of political renewal and social justice. Therefore, RF works on both psychological and social levels. There is no political blueprint for fundamentalism, and its leaders are invariably forced to improvise and borrow from existing political traditions.

8. 8 Anti-modernism Although Religious fundamentalism is anti-modern in character, this image alone is misleading Religious fundamentalism is selectively traditional (i.e. return to �family� values, Shari�a law) and selectively modern in character RF is anti-modern in character in that it despairs the decay of our modern society and values, but this image alone is a bit misleading. In fact RF is both selectively traditional in character and yet selectively modern in character. Modernisation is equated with permissiveness, adultery, pornography, moral pollution, and there is a huge divide between liberal individualism � in which individuals make their own moral decisions, and RF where the people are expected to conform to a strict moral system. For example, in Christian fundamentalists attempt to combat the spread of permissiveness and materialism by a return to �family� or �religious� values. And Islamic fundamentalists call for the reintroduction of ancient Sharia law. RF is anti-modern in character in that it despairs the decay of our modern society and values, but this image alone is a bit misleading. In fact RF is both selectively traditional in character and yet selectively modern in character. Modernisation is equated with permissiveness, adultery, pornography, moral pollution, and there is a huge divide between liberal individualism � in which individuals make their own moral decisions, and RF where the people are expected to conform to a strict moral system. For example, in Christian fundamentalists attempt to combat the spread of permissiveness and materialism by a return to �family� or �religious� values. And Islamic fundamentalists call for the reintroduction of ancient Sharia law.

9. 9 Religious fundamentalism� Across the world, fundamentalisms have exploited the advantages of modern mass communication Accept technology, science, the machinery of the modern state and even nuclear weaponry over the �descent in to other-worldly� mysticism � such as the Buddhists �Dynamic� interpretation of scriptures RFundamentalism likes to borrow from the modern. And this really is a marked aspect of RF. For example, RF across the world have shrewdly exploited the advantages of modern communication. Look at the tele-evangelists of the USA, such as Billy Graham who most effectively used the media to spread his message. This is different to other ultra orthodox � or ultra traditional movements who had shied away from the modern world and retreated to pre-modern ways (such as the Armish societies in the US). RF willingly accept technology, science, the machinery of the modern state, and even nuclear weaponry over the �descent in to �other-worldly � mysticism � such as the Buddhists. It is also significant to note that RF rely even in terms of their scriptures on �dynamic� interpretations � rather than harking back to inherited structures. RFundamentalism likes to borrow from the modern. And this really is a marked aspect of RF. For example, RF across the world have shrewdly exploited the advantages of modern communication. Look at the tele-evangelists of the USA, such as Billy Graham who most effectively used the media to spread his message. This is different to other ultra orthodox � or ultra traditional movements who had shied away from the modern world and retreated to pre-modern ways (such as the Armish societies in the US). RF willingly accept technology, science, the machinery of the modern state, and even nuclear weaponry over the �descent in to �other-worldly � mysticism � such as the Buddhists. It is also significant to note that RF rely even in terms of their scriptures on �dynamic� interpretations � rather than harking back to inherited structures.

10. 10 Militancy � Why? 1. Religious conflicts deal with core values and beliefs 2. Identity politics � distinction between �them� and �us� 3. Emphasis between �good� and �evil� Whereas Religious fundamentalists embrace a conventional, state-centred view of politics, they have also pursued a very distinct style of politics �one that is militant, violent and vigorous. Where does this come from? What are its implications? Well first, all conflicts involving religion are intense, because they deal with core values and beliefs. This explains why religious wars have been so common throughout history. Second, RF is also a form of identity politics � that is a division between them and us. All identity politics � whether based on social, national, ethnic or religious differences tend to focus upon a �hostile� and threatening �other� group. For example, this �other can take place in many forms, such as the permissiveness to rival religions, the USA, westernisation, Marxism or imperialism. Third, is the RF tend to see the world as black and white � good and evil. If �we� are the children of God, then the others are representing nothing less than the forces of darkness. So for RF, politics is a battle or war, and one where ultimately the believers or infidels will prevail.Whereas Religious fundamentalists embrace a conventional, state-centred view of politics, they have also pursued a very distinct style of politics �one that is militant, violent and vigorous. Where does this come from? What are its implications? Well first, all conflicts involving religion are intense, because they deal with core values and beliefs. This explains why religious wars have been so common throughout history. Second, RF is also a form of identity politics � that is a division between them and us. All identity politics � whether based on social, national, ethnic or religious differences tend to focus upon a �hostile� and threatening �other� group. For example, this �other can take place in many forms, such as the permissiveness to rival religions, the USA, westernisation, Marxism or imperialism. Third, is the RF tend to see the world as black and white � good and evil. If �we� are the children of God, then the others are representing nothing less than the forces of darkness. So for RF, politics is a battle or war, and one where ultimately the believers or infidels will prevail.

11. 11 Consequences? A willingness to use anti-constitutional political action But although fundamentalists regard God�s law as higher than human law, it does not follow that all groups will disregard human law The most controversial issue is the fundamentalist�s use of violence What are the consequences of all this? --A willingness to use anti-constitutional political action. But note that although Religious fundamentalists regard God�s law is higher than human law, it does not mean that all groups will disregard human law. Look at the new Christian right�s firm support for law and order. But the most controversial issue is the fundamentalist use of violence. Although the popular image of suicide bombers and terrorists is unbalanced and misleading, it is impossible to deny its links with RF, and of course the examples are many: Sept 11, 2001 attacks on the Pentagon and World Trade centres in the US, the assasination of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat in 1981 by Islamic fundamentalists, the assassination of Indira Ghandhi by militant Sikhs in 1984, and anti-abortion extremists in the USA who have furthered their crusade through bombing and murder. What are the consequences of all this? --A willingness to use anti-constitutional political action. But note that although Religious fundamentalists regard God�s law is higher than human law, it does not mean that all groups will disregard human law. Look at the new Christian right�s firm support for law and order. But the most controversial issue is the fundamentalist use of violence. Although the popular image of suicide bombers and terrorists is unbalanced and misleading, it is impossible to deny its links with RF, and of course the examples are many: Sept 11, 2001 attacks on the Pentagon and World Trade centres in the US, the assasination of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat in 1981 by Islamic fundamentalists, the assassination of Indira Ghandhi by militant Sikhs in 1984, and anti-abortion extremists in the USA who have furthered their crusade through bombing and murder.

12. 12 Various forms of Fundamentalism Derive from different religions Emerge from very different societies Differ according to the political causes they are associated with Religious fundamentalists are certainly not all the same - and although we can consider their movements as one family or type of ism � RF � each fundamentalism is distinguishable and comes from very different pathways. Most obviously RF derive from different religions � Buddhism, Christianity, Sikhism. They also emerge from very different societies � Western, Middle Eastern, the Orient. And thirdly, they differ according to the political causes they are associated with. � whether that is achieving political renewal � which is particularly attractive to oppressed peoples, or strengthening a national identity, or political culture. I�ll now turn to two leading fundamentalist groups, first the Islamic fundamentalists, and then Christian fundamentalists.Religious fundamentalists are certainly not all the same - and although we can consider their movements as one family or type of ism � RF � each fundamentalism is distinguishable and comes from very different pathways. Most obviously RF derive from different religions � Buddhism, Christianity, Sikhism. They also emerge from very different societies � Western, Middle Eastern, the Orient. And thirdly, they differ according to the political causes they are associated with. � whether that is achieving political renewal � which is particularly attractive to oppressed peoples, or strengthening a national identity, or political culture. I�ll now turn to two leading fundamentalist groups, first the Islamic fundamentalists, and then Christian fundamentalists.

13. 13 Islamic Fundamentalism Guided by the teachings of Muhammad (570-632AD) and revealed in the Koran Two main sects: Sunni (majority) and Shiite/Shia (10%) mostly in Iran and Iraq Islamic fundamentalism was revived in 1928 when the Muslim Brotherhood was founded in Egypt (Led by Hassan al Banna) Brotherhood pledged to revitalise Islamic faith and provide alternative to Western domination Islam � the world�s 2nd largest religion � 1.3 billion Muslims in the world today. It is not just a religion � but a complete way of life � guided by the teachings of the prophet Muhammad (570-632 AD) and revealed in the sacred text, the Koran. There are two main sects � the Sunni, who represent the majority, and then the Shiite/or Shia who are just 10 percent of Muslims and mostly live in Iran and Iraq. The revival of Islamic fundamentalism in the 20th C started with the 1928 founding of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt. Founded by Hassan al Banna, the movement wanted to revitalise the Islamic faith and provide an alternative to both capitalism and socialism. They would also liberate Egypt from foreign rule. (Remember the British ruled in Egypt until 1936 and retained a powerful military and economic presence for many years). The Brotherhood � who also preached �liberation� for all Islamic peoples, spread to Jordan, Syria and the Sudan. They set up mosques, schools, youth clubs, and business enterprises. They trained young peoples physically and militarily to prepare for a holy war � jihad to achieve their objectives.Islam � the world�s 2nd largest religion � 1.3 billion Muslims in the world today. It is not just a religion � but a complete way of life � guided by the teachings of the prophet Muhammad (570-632 AD) and revealed in the sacred text, the Koran. There are two main sects � the Sunni, who represent the majority, and then the Shiite/or Shia who are just 10 percent of Muslims and mostly live in Iran and Iraq. The revival of Islamic fundamentalism in the 20th C started with the 1928 founding of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt. Founded by Hassan al Banna, the movement wanted to revitalise the Islamic faith and provide an alternative to both capitalism and socialism. They would also liberate Egypt from foreign rule. (Remember the British ruled in Egypt until 1936 and retained a powerful military and economic presence for many years). The Brotherhood � who also preached �liberation� for all Islamic peoples, spread to Jordan, Syria and the Sudan. They set up mosques, schools, youth clubs, and business enterprises. They trained young peoples physically and militarily to prepare for a holy war � jihad to achieve their objectives.

14. 14 Growth of Muslim Brotherhood Egypt�s defeat in Arab-Israeli war of l967 provided an opportunity for the Muslim Brotherhood to expand Since 1970s, fundamentalist groups attracted growing popular support Led by popular revolution in Iran, Ayatollah Khomeini proclaimed the first Islamic Republic 1979 The movement stayed on the fringes during the 1950s when Gamal Nasser in Egypt promoted a form of Arab socialism, but when Nasser himself was defeated in the Arab-Israeli war of 1967, he lost credibility and this gave the Brotherhood an opportunity to expand. Aware of continued economic and political dominance from the West � embodied by the successful state of Israel, the Brotherhood attracted huge grass roots support especially from the young and politically committed. The focal point of this process has been what used to be Persia, and is now the state of Iran. In 1979 a religious cleric called Ayatollah Khomeneini, was led to power by popular revolution and he became leader of the first Islamic Republic. This example � in connection with Shiite fundamentalism has been inspirational in many parts of the world. In 1981, the Muslim Brotherhood assassinated president Anwar Sadat of Egypt, and in Pakistan and the Sudan, Islamic fundamentalist groups pressured their governments to reintroduce Sharia Law. Of course the advance of Islamic Fundamentalism has taken many forms, including the birth of al Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden, and a constitutional form of fundamentalism that has gained popularity through the electoral success in 2002 of the Justice and Development party (AKP) in Turkey. (This party was formed from previously banned Islamic groups.) We must remember, however, that such a view of Islam misrepresents its central teachings. Islamic teachings are committed to peace, respect and justice. But like all religious traditions, Islam contains a variety of interpretations that can be used to justify any action or cause. Remember, what distinguishes RF is that it advances new interpretations of religious teachings, and then claims them as gospel truth. +The movement stayed on the fringes during the 1950s when Gamal Nasser in Egypt promoted a form of Arab socialism, but when Nasser himself was defeated in the Arab-Israeli war of 1967, he lost credibility and this gave the Brotherhood an opportunity to expand. Aware of continued economic and political dominance from the West � embodied by the successful state of Israel, the Brotherhood attracted huge grass roots support especially from the young and politically committed. The focal point of this process has been what used to be Persia, and is now the state of Iran. In 1979 a religious cleric called Ayatollah Khomeneini, was led to power by popular revolution and he became leader of the first Islamic Republic. This example � in connection with Shiite fundamentalism has been inspirational in many parts of the world. In 1981, the Muslim Brotherhood assassinated president Anwar Sadat of Egypt, and in Pakistan and the Sudan, Islamic fundamentalist groups pressured their governments to reintroduce Sharia Law. Of course the advance of Islamic Fundamentalism has taken many forms, including the birth of al Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden, and a constitutional form of fundamentalism that has gained popularity through the electoral success in 2002 of the Justice and Development party (AKP) in Turkey. (This party was formed from previously banned Islamic groups.) We must remember, however, that such a view of Islam misrepresents its central teachings. Islamic teachings are committed to peace, respect and justice. But like all religious traditions, Islam contains a variety of interpretations that can be used to justify any action or cause. Remember, what distinguishes RF is that it advances new interpretations of religious teachings, and then claims them as gospel truth. +

15. 15 Christian Fundamentalism Christianity, the world�s largest religion Three main divisions: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant Political significance of Christianity declined with advance of liberal constitutionalism Emphasis on single and moral issues Ethnic nationalism in Northern Ireland appealed to working-class Protestants as well as fundamentalists With roughly 2 billion followers, Christianity is the world�s largest religion. Although all Christians acknowledge the authority of the Bible, three main divisions have emerged: The Catholics, based under the spiritual leadership of the Pope, The Orthodox Christians � especially the Russian and Greek Orthodox� developed from the split with Rome in 1054, and then the Protestants who rejected Roman authority during the Reformation of the 16th Century. Since the reformation, political significance of Christianity has very much declined �as we know - with the advance of liberal constitutionalism, separation of church and state, and the non-religious nature of political life. Thus, especially in the West, Christianity became much more about our own personal lives. And with our stable economic and political structures, fundamentalists have been happy to work within a pluralist and constitutional framework. In fact, Christian fundamentalists have tended to emphasise single issues, and focus on moral issues. One of the important causes that Christian fundamentalism has tried to articulate, is ethnic nationalism. For example, in Northern Ireland, Ian Paisley�s breakaway Free Presbyterian Church, is organised politically by the Democratic Unionist Party, and it equates the idea of a united Ireland with the victory of Catholicism and Rome. By appealing to working-class Protestants as well as fundamentalists, Paisley and his supporters have succeeded in blocking political moves that might ultimately lead to the establishment of a united Ireland. But the theological basis of Paisley�s resistance draws from America, the home of evangelical Protestantism and of the most influential Christian fundamentalist movement, the new Christian right.With roughly 2 billion followers, Christianity is the world�s largest religion. Although all Christians acknowledge the authority of the Bible, three main divisions have emerged: The Catholics, based under the spiritual leadership of the Pope, The Orthodox Christians � especially the Russian and Greek Orthodox� developed from the split with Rome in 1054, and then the Protestants who rejected Roman authority during the Reformation of the 16th Century. Since the reformation, political significance of Christianity has very much declined �as we know - with the advance of liberal constitutionalism, separation of church and state, and the non-religious nature of political life. Thus, especially in the West, Christianity became much more about our own personal lives. And with our stable economic and political structures, fundamentalists have been happy to work within a pluralist and constitutional framework. In fact, Christian fundamentalists have tended to emphasise single issues, and focus on moral issues. One of the important causes that Christian fundamentalism has tried to articulate, is ethnic nationalism. For example, in Northern Ireland, Ian Paisley�s breakaway Free Presbyterian Church, is organised politically by the Democratic Unionist Party, and it equates the idea of a united Ireland with the victory of Catholicism and Rome. By appealing to working-class Protestants as well as fundamentalists, Paisley and his supporters have succeeded in blocking political moves that might ultimately lead to the establishment of a united Ireland. But the theological basis of Paisley�s resistance draws from America, the home of evangelical Protestantism and of the most influential Christian fundamentalist movement, the new Christian right.

16. 16 The New Christian Right 60 million US citizens say they are �born again� Christians, and of those, half describe themselves as fundamentalists A broad coalition of groups concerned with what they see as a decline of moral and social issues. Campaign to restore traditional family values America is easily the most religious of the western nations � and of course this reflects America�s history. After all, America was a place of refuge for the early pilgrims who escaped from persecution in Europe. 60 million US citizens say they are born again Christians, and of those, half describe themselves as fundamentalists. The new Christian right is an umbrella term that describes a broad coalition of groups in the United states of America who are concerned with moral and social issues, and want to restore what they see as Christian values. There are two reasons for this growth in the U.S. First - since 1945, Christian fundamentalists have perceived a decline in certain traditional values, for instance a Supreme Court ruling in the 1960s judged against the use of prayers in schools. And secondly, the increasing prominence of political groups representing blacks, women and homosexuals � created serious misgivings for fundamentalists � and so the new Christian Right emerged in the l970s to campaign forcefully for the restoration of traditional family values. America is easily the most religious of the western nations � and of course this reflects America�s history. After all, America was a place of refuge for the early pilgrims who escaped from persecution in Europe. 60 million US citizens say they are born again Christians, and of those, half describe themselves as fundamentalists. The new Christian right is an umbrella term that describes a broad coalition of groups in the United states of America who are concerned with moral and social issues, and want to restore what they see as Christian values. There are two reasons for this growth in the U.S. First - since 1945, Christian fundamentalists have perceived a decline in certain traditional values, for instance a Supreme Court ruling in the 1960s judged against the use of prayers in schools. And secondly, the increasing prominence of political groups representing blacks, women and homosexuals � created serious misgivings for fundamentalists � and so the new Christian Right emerged in the l970s to campaign forcefully for the restoration of traditional family values.

17. 17 �born again� �Pro life� agenda Ronald Reagan and George Bush Sr. embraced the new Christian Right agenda by making �pro life� political appointments, but they failed to deliver on the moral agenda Today, the Christian Right has achieved a boost from the election of George W. Bush and his Vice President, Dick Cheney � both �born again� Christians John Ashcroft, a leading evangelical was appointed Attorney General by George W. Bush In the 80s and 90s this politics of morality increasingly focused around the anti-abortion issue and several organisations emerged to articulate the message, including the Christian Voice, and the Moral Majority, formed by Jerry Falwell in l980. Since then, the Moral Majority and other groups have provided campaign finance and organised voter registration drives with a view to targeting liberal or pro choice Democrats and encouraging Republicans to embrace a new social and moral agenda. Both Ronal Reagan and George Bush Sr. embraced this new Christian right agenda by making ��pro life� appointment, but yet both failed to deliver on the moral agenda. In 1992 the Christian Right put up their own candidate for Republican presidential nominations - Pat Robertson. He failed to get in, but it was a big stumbling block for the movement � and a response to this failure was to become more militant � and an example of this was the Oklahoma bombing of a federal government building in 1995. Today, the new Christian right has received a boost from the election of George W. Bush � and his vice president, Dick Cheney � both born again Christians. George Bush appointed a leading evangelical, John Ashcroft as Attorney General in the year 2000.In the 80s and 90s this politics of morality increasingly focused around the anti-abortion issue and several organisations emerged to articulate the message, including the Christian Voice, and the Moral Majority, formed by Jerry Falwell in l980. Since then, the Moral Majority and other groups have provided campaign finance and organised voter registration drives with a view to targeting liberal or pro choice Democrats and encouraging Republicans to embrace a new social and moral agenda. Both Ronal Reagan and George Bush Sr. embraced this new Christian right agenda by making ��pro life� appointment, but yet both failed to deliver on the moral agenda. In 1992 the Christian Right put up their own candidate for Republican presidential nominations - Pat Robertson. He failed to get in, but it was a big stumbling block for the movement � and a response to this failure was to become more militant � and an example of this was the Oklahoma bombing of a federal government building in 1995. Today, the new Christian right has received a boost from the election of George W. Bush � and his vice president, Dick Cheney � both born again Christians. George Bush appointed a leading evangelical, John Ashcroft as Attorney General in the year 2000.

18. 18 Seminar Questions Does religious fundamentalism impact on our daily lives? �The USA is easily the most religious of western countries�. Is this true? Why? Would you say that fundamentalist religion is a symptom of the difficult adjustments that modernization brings about? Will religious fundamentalism survive throughout the 21st Century?