Q1 - Motivation

1. Q1 - Motivation • Definition: needs and wants that energize and direct behavior

2. Q2 - Motivation - Perspectives • Instincts • Drive-reduction theory • Optimal arousal • Maslow’s hierarchy

3. Instincts • A complex, unlearned rigid pattern of behavior shared throughout a species • Rooting, sucking, grasping • Do we have an instinct to mate? • Do we have instincts to eat? • Freud on instincts • Ordinary usage of instinct

4. Q3 - Drive-reduction • Physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates us to satisfy the need • Need -----> drive ---> behavior • Steady state - homeostasis • Different from instincts? • Drives push - incentives pull • With both a need and an incentive, drive is strong • Incentives can be negative or positive

5. Optimal arousal • Are we satisfied with homeostasis? • If your physiological needs are met, how do you feel? • Imagine you are in solitary confinement in prison. All your physiological needs are met. Are you happy? Satisfied? • How many of your behaviors today were concerned with meeting physiological needs?

6. Types of motivations • Q4 - Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations • Primary and secondary motivations

7. Maslow’s hierarchy • Biological - safety - social - self-esteem - self-actualization • Does this hierarchy always hold true? • In life-satisfaction surveys, what matters most in poor countries? In wealthy countries? In individualistic countries? In collectivistic countries? • What is strongest motivation?

8. Motivations Hunger, sex, affiliation, achievement,

9. Q5 - Biology • Empty stomach – contractions • Hypothalamus monitors blood sugar • Lateral hypothalamus increases hunger • Ventro-medial hypothalamus decreases hunger • Set point - predisposition to maintain a particular body weight - below it energy falls as we try to gain weight and vice versa • Basal metabolic rate - can vary as well

10. Q6 – Soc/Cult factors in hunger • When to eat - do different cultures eat differently? • What to eat - culturally determined? • Sweet and salty seem to be universal. Why? • Why we like certain foods…

11. Eating disorders • Anorexia nervosa • Bulimia • See handout

12. Q7 - Sex Research • Kinsey - interviews • Masters and Johnson - measurements / film • First to study sexual responses scientifically • What counts as “normal” sexuality?

13. M&J human sexual response • Excitement - genital engorgement, lubrication, breasts enlarge, general arousal • Plateau - arousal continues, semen from penis, clitoris retracts, orgasm imminent • Orgasm - muscle contractions throughout body, arousal peaks, aids in conception • Resolution - engorgement ends, arousal reduces, men enter refractory phase

14. Q8 - Influences on sexual motivation • Biology • Sexual maturity • Hormones • Psychology • Stimulation • Fantasies

15. Influences • Social - cultural • Values - family and society • Religious / personal values • Cultural expectations

16. Q9 -Sexual orientation • What counts as orientation? Activity or fantasy? Plasticity of attraction • Do heterosexuals ever have homosexual experience or fantasies? • Are any people really bisexual? • What % of people are homosexual? Asexual?

17. Q10 -What causes sexual orientation? • Environment? Relationship with parents, site of sexual maturity • Biology? Hypothalamus size? Prenatal hormones in 2nd to 5th month? Genes? Fraternal birth order affected by prenatal environment? • Social / cultural causes? In culture? Raised by gays? Recruited? • Evolutionary considerations

18. How have we decorated ourselves over the centuries? • How do we emphasize certain features?

22. Affiliation, Achievement

23. Q11 - Affiliation - evolutionary perspective • In what ways does being part of a group facilitate the likelihood that we will survive and reproduce? • Is the need to belong genetic or conditioned?

24. Q12 Scales of affiliation • Social comparison • Positive stimulation • Emotional support • Attention

25. Social comparison • We associate with similar people • We emulate, admire, imitate people higher in social status than us • Do we ever imitate those of lower status?

26. Positive stimulation • We get positive feedback from friends • They support our efforts to succeed • They join in our activities • They confirm our choices

27. Emotional support • Benefits of the emotional support and bonds of friends and loved ones • Longer, healthier lived • Stress and emotional support • Why do we celebrate birthdays?

28. Q13 Achievement • Is need for achievement a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior? • The psychological need to succeed at work, in school, in other areas of life

29. Intrinsic and extrinsic • Intrinsic motivations are those that drive us to perform behavior for its own sake • Extrinsic motivations are those that we perform in the hopes of receiving rewards or avoiding punishment

30. Goals Q14 • Mastery goals - desire to master new information or skills - usually intrinsic • Performance-approach goals - desire to succeed in order to gain approval or other benefits • Performance-avoidance goals - desire to succeed to avoid unpleasant consequences of failure

31. Church’s research • In a moderately challenging college course, who made the highest grades and who enjoyed the class most? • Students with high mastery and low perf-approach goals • Students with low mastery and high perf-avoidance goals • Students with high performance-approach goals

32. Achievement vs affiliation • Are the two mutually exclusive? • Can you achieve and maintain strong social bonds?

33. Stress Q15 • Stressor • Stress reaction • Stress – a process of relating to env. • Emotional response • Physical response • Epinephrine and norepinephrine • glucocorticoids

34. Selye’s GAS Q16 • General adaptation syndrome • Alarm • Resistance • Exhaustion • Catastrophies, Life events, daily stress

35. Effects and coping • Physiological effects • Heart – type A and B personality • Immune responses • Cancer • Coping Q20 • Perceived control • Explanatory style – optimist / pessimist • Social support – exercise - biofeedback

36. Emotions The Basic 10 (or 12 or so) • Joy, excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, contempt, shame, guilt, pride, love, envy • Q17 All have some element of • Physiological arousal • Expressive behavior (verbal, non-verbal) • Conscious experience (cognitive)

37. Which comes first? • Arousal first? • You’re in a small boat on the ocean. In the distance a huge storm is developing. You begin to tremble. You feel afraid. Your emotion follows the arousal • Q18 That’s the James-Lange theory • (William James and Carl Lange) • Sensation  ANS  amygdala

38. Phooey • How can the sailor tell if he’s afraid or excited or in love? The arousal state is all the same • The sensation must be routed simultaneously to both cerebral cortex and to ANS -- arousal and emotion occur simultaneously • Cannon-Baird theory (Cannon was Wm. James’s son-in-law)

39. More phooey • They’re both wrong and right • Like JL, arousal precedes emotion • Like CB, arousals are all the same • How to tell the difference? • Arousal + cognitive label = emotion • This is the Schachter-Singer Two factor theory (it rhymes)

40. One more interesting theory • Solomon opponent-process theory • Where have you heard that term before? • A) every state of feeling is followed by a contrasting state of similar intensity • B) any feeling experienced many times loses some of its intensity

41. Arousal and performance • Q19 See pg. 517 • Performance peak at high arousal for easy tasks; lower arousal for harder tasks • Better learned – go for high arousal! • Didn’t study? Try to relax