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Public relations past, present, and future

2. But first

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Public relations past, present, and future

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    1. 1 Public relations past, present, and future September 26-28, 2006

    2. 2 But first… Finishing up discussion of mass communication theories (as they relate to PR) Magic bullet theory Limited effects paradigm Uses and gratifications Agenda-setting

    3. 3 “Magic bullet” theory of propaganda (1910s-1930s) Simplistic propaganda theory: media stimuli work like “magic bullets” (or hypodermic needles) people are simply “targets,” unwitting victims people are powerless to resist influence no matter who they are

    4. 4 Magic bullet (ctd.) Media messages penetrate people’s minds and instantly and directly create associations between strong emotions and specific concepts

    5. 5 Main assumptions underlying magic-bullet theory External stimuli, like those in mass media, can condition anyone to behave in whatever way a master propagandist wants Built on stimulus-response (behaviorist) model

    6. 6 Assumptions (ctd.) No matter what your level of education or social status magic bullets (media messages) penetrate your defenses and transform your thoughts/actions Rational mind is mere façade

    7. 7 The end of magic bullets 1940s-1960s: “limited effects” paradigm Sweeping new approach to mass communication study Recognized that many factors impede power/success of media What might these be?

    8. 8 Underlying “limited effects” Individual differences Social-group identification “Two-step flow” Opinion leaders and opinion followers View of mass communication as “transmission” through conduit

    9. 9 The famed “transmission” model

    10. 10 Embracing the transmission model Intended to explain broadcast transmissions Quickly adopted by interpersonal comm scholars as well Easily grasped concepts source message/signal channel receiver noise feedback

    11. 11 What’s missing from this model?

    12. 12 Any consideration of the audience! And the likelihood that not all messages are “received” identically by all audience members Consider alternatives that have been offered Notably, the “encoding/decoding” model

    13. 13 By 1960 Most remnants of mass society and magic bullet theory long forgotten Including received belief that media have direct, powerful effects Academia and business embrace limited effects paradigm Foundation laid for “active audience” approaches

    14. 14 An important active-audience theory: “uses and gratifications” Rather than focusing on power of the media (or message makers), U&G takes the viewer as the starting point Rather than talking about how media influence viewer U&G focus on how viewer exercises choice

    15. 15 Key U&G claims People choose media that suit them People choose media that fulfill needs, are useful, and are pleasurable to them Needs and gratifications vary from person to person, from situation to situation How/why might the PR profession embrace (and leverage) this theory?

    16. 16 But! Not every mass communication scholar is ready to walk away from an understanding of the media as powerful New (1960s-present) “powerful effects” theories simply take different approaches One of the most influential: “agenda-setting theory” Originators: McCombs & Shaw, 1972

    17. 17 A now classic line that M & S quoted to summarize AS: “The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about” (Bernard Cohen, 1963).

    18. 18 Let’s unpack this “The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.” What did Cohen mean? (“think” vs. “think about” ??)

    19. 19 Major claims of original agenda-setting theory (1972) “Media agenda” determines the “public agenda” What’s covered—and emphasized—in news becomes what people say is important to them Agenda-setting is not done by media purposely or deliberately That is (according to McCombs & Shaw), media don’t set out to influence readers

    20. 20 Original theory (ctd.) Still, the media have unintended but powerful effects: Media determine what are the main issues of the day (in people’s minds) The press sets the agenda of public discussion and this sweeping political power is unrestrained by any law.

    21. 21 As a McCombs & Shaw contemporary* put it “It determines what people will talk about think about—an authority that in other nations is reserved for tyrants, priests, parties, and mandarins.” *Theodore White, writing about press coverage of presidential campaigns

    22. 22 Why was this groundbreaking (in early ’70s?) Challenge to limited-effects paradigm Reaffirmed press power Yet maintained that individuals are still free to choose! Paradox: agenda-setting theory was “new” in 1972, but echoed an idea offered 50 years earlier

    23. 23 “Gate-keeping” (Robert Park, 1922) Out of all the events that happen in a given day… …newspaper’s editor chooses certain items for publication that he regards as more important or more interesting than others the remainder he condemns to oblivion (waste basket) enormous amount of news “killed” every day In this way, editors (and media in general) are gatekeepers They determine what gets in and what stays out

    24. 24 Criticism of original AS theory How do you know the relationship is causal in THIS direction? Media agenda ? voters’ agenda Isn’t it possible that it works the other way? Voters’ agenda ? media agenda (translation: media give their audiences what they want)

    25. 25 1990s-2000s updates of agenda-setting theory We should talk about 3 agendas Media agenda: what media say is important Public agenda: what regular people say is important Policy agenda: what lawmakers say is important (by enacting laws) Flow of influence (who sets whose agenda) goes in all directions

    26. 26 Another important update Original claim: media tells us not what to think (what opinions to have) but what to think about (which issues are important) New research shows: media DO tell us what to think (what opinions to have) but the way they do so is subtle and is often called “framing” today

    27. 27 “Framing” What’s a frame? The central organizing idea for news content that supplies a context suggests what the issue is, through the use of selection emphasis exclusion elaboration In other words, the way the media present a story will shape our opinions about its content

    28. 28 So what happens? When the media select, emphasize, exclude, and elaborate… they not only make some issues more salient they also transfer the salience of specific attributes associated with the issue/person/event from object to the “pictures in our heads” How might PR come into play here?

    29. 29 Hint What is a primary function/purpose of public relations? To shape public opinion To create, control, manage image of or news of an organization

    30. 30 Thus, centrality of AS and framing to PR Who sets the agenda for the media? Who frames the issues for the media This is where PR steps in Largely, an attempt to do just that: Set the media’s agenda Frame issues to suit an organization’s needs/desires

    31. 31 PR: past, present, future

    32. 32 PR’s ancient roots Ancient Greece (B.C.) Study of rhetoric: communication intended to persuade (and in so doing, shape public opinion) appeals to Logos Ethos Pathos Ancient Rome Concern with vox populi

    33. 33 Public relations principles in the “Old World” church Spread of Christianity (especially 1st through 3rd centuries) Invention of printing press (1450s) And with it, easy dissemination of ideas (most prominently, the bible) Catholic Church’s Congregatio de Propaganda Fide Note the key word in that name!

    34. 34 Early US public relations for political ends 1773: Boston Tea Party A brilliant public relations event Or, more accurately, a “pseudo-event” Why? 1774-1776: Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense (and his later pamphlet series, The American Crisis, during the war) Sense called for revolution; Crisis urged colonists to continue struggle 1776: Declaration of Independence Itself a “news release,” sort of…

    35. 35 Early US political PR (ctd.) 1787-1788: Federalist Papers Position papers supporting ratification of Constitution Appeared in newspapers under pseudonym “Publius” (but actually written by Hamilton, Madison, & Jay)

    36. 36 “Progressive Era” (1890s-1917) and its aftermath Major political/societal/commercial shifts in US, starting at turn of century helped lay groundwork for birth and growth of public relations as an industry Growth of huge corporations (including monopolies) Which leads to increased government regulation of business And to growth of labor unions All sides want their opinions heard

    37. 37 Progressive Era trends (ctd.) Increased political activism Immigration (1880s-90s) immigrants want voice in US society their opponents also want voice Newspapers evolve into social advocates

    38. 38 Progressive Era (and beyond) trends (ctd.) Spread of democracy Women gain vote (1920) 18-year-olds gain vote (1960s) Civil rights movements (1950s-60s) Vietnam war supporters and protesters All brought about with increased public communication and persuasion about their issues

    39. 39 Early years of PR industry While the attempt to shape and influence public opinion goes back millennia… There was no organized public relations profession/industry until 1880s-90s 1888: Mutual Life Insurance Company creates “literary bureau” to publicize its services 1889: George Westinghouse hires news reporter to influence public opinion (for his products, against Edison’s)

    40. 40 Early PR agencies: early 1900s 1900: first PR agency, the Publicity Bureau, opens in Boston Provides services to clients (AT&T, railroads) that want their own opinions to be heard (in an age when big corporations were publicly criticized) 1902: “publicity business” opens in D.C. 1904: Parker & Lee Agency opens in NYC

    41. 41 Problems facing early agencies (which all folded quickly) Formalization of publicity new; not understood Hard to turn a profit Worked against their own credibility Put out stories about their clients that presented clients’ views—but didn’t worry too much about accuracy! Goal was to “get ink” at any cost (even credibility), and it backfired

    42. 42 Other problems early PR agencies faced Resistance from publishers PR agents used bribes, gifts, stunts that seemed unethical Many PR agents were ex-journalists; current journalists resented their “changing sides” (still an issue today!)

    43. 43 Growth of PR industry: first half of 20th century

    44. 44 Teddy Roosevelt (president 1901-1909) First US president to consciously court media in order to get his version of events and policies into the press

    45. 45 Woodrow Wilson and the Creel Commission Wilson: US president 1913-1921 Successfully kept US out of WWI during his first term—a popular action But then rallied US citizens’ support for entering war early in 2nd term

    46. 46 How did Wilson turn public opinion around by 180 degrees? With public relations! Formed “Committee for Public Information” (a/k/a “Creel Commission,” headed by ex-journalist, now PR pro George Creel) CPI helped Wilson articulate a pro-war policy And published millions of pamphlets (and some films) distributed during 2 years US was in war: “Why We’re Fighting”

    47. 47 The two “fathers” of the modern PR industry Ivy Lee Edward Bernays (with wife Doris Fleischman Bernays)

    48. 48 Ivy Lee One of the two “fathers” of the PR industry Formed his own publicity bureau (1904) Wrote “declaration of principles” Publicity firms, such as his, should be open, honest, not secretive Supply the press and the public with accurate information that is of value and interest Problem: “accurate” information he provided reflected his clients’ desired views, but not always truth…

    49. 49 Ivy Lee’s early work Helped Pennsylvania Railroad after an accident (1906) Advised them to admit mistakes that caused accident and be open with the press This was the exact opposite of how big companies handled crises before his day!

    50. 50 Lee’s early work (ctd.) Helped John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil company with image issues during miners’ strike Provided management’s side of story to press Helped miners with working conditions AND kept union out of the mines Turned around J.D.R.’s image From greedy industrialist to philanthropist (handed out dimes to children)

    51. 51 Lee’s later work Gained public support for aviation (thanks largely to popular hero Charles Lindbergh) Helped General Mills launch Wheaties, Gold Medal Flour; helped GM with image of Betty Crocker Worked for German industrialists in early 1930s, as Hitler was coming to power And thus, Lee died with reputation as Nazi sympathizer

    52. 52 Edward Bernays Nephew of Sigmund Freud Popularized phrase public relations counsel to describe what he did Had been on Wilson’s “Creel Commission” (CPI) Then, when war was over, accompanied President Wilson to Versailles Peace Conference His job: deal with reporters, disseminate President’s position This turned CPI into Wilson’s PR machine

    53. 53 How Bernays described the role of a public relations counsel As opposed to “propagandist” or even “publicist” or “press agent” (which all had negative connotations)… …a PR counsel (said Bernays, in 1923) provides “publicity direction,” which means Directing the actions of a client to result in the desired publicity Giving professional advice to clients to better their public relationships, regardless of whether this generated publicity

    54. 54 Some of Bernays’s clients Procter & Gamble CBS radio General Motors Most famously (or infamously), the American Tobacco Company

    55. 55 Lee, Bernays, and public opinion Both of these “fathers” recognized that public opinion is flexible And not always rational! Recognized that, in hands of the “right” experts, leaders, and PR counselors… …public opinion was ready for shaping in ways that people could get behind

    56. 56 Let’s look at these early days Video: Toxic Sludge is Good for You

    57. 57 Other PR pioneers Arthur Page & Theodore Vail of AT&T Revolutionized corporate communications Recognized that employee relations may be as important as customer and media relations Also recognized that even public utilities have to please their customers (and maintain positive public image)

    58. 58 Mid-20th century landmarks 1940s Office of War Information promotes US entry into WW2 (and individual enlistment) Forerunner to US Information Agency (d. 1999) PRSA (Public Relations Society of America) formed

    59. 59 1960s NAACP and CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) Civil-rights organizations Ralph Nader (then consumer advocate) book Unsafe at Any Speed: scathing critique of automobile industry (safety issues) creates Project on Corporate Responsibility PR is now used not only to serve corporations, but to keep them in check!

    60. 60 1970s PR grows, takes on higher public profile Pro: International Association of Business Communicators formed Con: bad PR blamed for Nixon’s image problems (including handling of Watergate crisis)

    61. 61 PR in the digital age Internet/WWW make communication of company’s image faster and easier But also mandatory No organization can be without—at least—a web site today And many choose to also Advertise online Sell products directly online (e-commerce)

    62. 62 Digital technology: a tool, only Capacity to Put up a web site Make available your press releases Send your press releases, newsletters, brochures, etc. via e-mail SHOULD mean that you’re getting your organization closer to your publics But doesn’t necessarily mean you’re doing it well

    63. 63 A PR-smart web site Is designed to address specific purposes Not just to have a site Knows and responds to reader’s interests Is updated regularly Is enjoyable and engaging to visit Is user-friendly Is written well Has well chosen links (in and out) Is promoted by your other IMC elements!

    64. 64 Problems with reliance on Internet/WWW for PR efforts Difficult to target—and reach—the right public(s) Anyone can go to your web site How do you get desired audiences to do so?

    65. 65 Another problem with excessive reliance on WWW Too many gatekeepers (recap: what’s a gatekeeper?) (recall mass communication theory, esp. agenda-setting and framing) If I (as a consumer, media user) can customize what comes into my e-mailbox, I’m also keeping undesired information out e.g., Times “news tracker” service

    66. 66 And some more WWW-reliance problems The Web still doesn’t reach everyone in US: senior citizens Outside US: non-English-speaking countries The Web is not considered reliable/credible news source (compared to newspapers) Spam, viruses, hackers Web is passive—a web site doesn’t go to your publics—they have to seek it out

    67. 67 Other tech innovations that help the PR industry Satellite media tours (SMTs) A celebrity or corporate spokesperson can talk “personally” with individual reporters (or TV stations) without having to travel CD-ROMS can provide a more exciting message than a written news release Wireless devices (cell phones, Blackberry) can be used to send PR information

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