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PHIL 301: HISTORY OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY

MIDTERM REVIEW . PHIL 301: HISTORY OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY. This is a partial overview of the information presented on the website and in the course text. Be sure to be familiar with these materials before the test !. PHIL 301: HISTORY OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY.

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PHIL 301: HISTORY OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY

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  1. MIDTERM REVIEW PHIL 301: HISTORY OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY

  2. This is a partial overview of the information presented on the website and in the course text. Be sure to be familiar with these materials before the test! PHIL 301: HISTORY OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY

  3. The methods of History of Philosophy and Timeline INtroduction

  4. The history of philosophy is an inquiry into both what ancient philosophers thought about certain issues and why they had these particular thoughts. We look at the texts to do this. But the texts often give us an incomplete picture. History of philosophy: methodology

  5. Many times we have to extrapolate what figures meant by looking at the historical context in which they were writing. This is hard. Especially for Ancient Philosophy, because it happened so long ago and we have very little to go on. History of philosophy: methodology

  6. The ancient philosophers lived in a very different time. Much less was known about the world. They wrote in a different language. Texts do not provide a complete record of a culture in the best of circumstances. Many of the ancient texts have not survived. Sometimes we only get quotes from other authors, who might not be sympathetic. History of philosophy: methodology

  7. History of Philosophy vs. Philosophy The history of philosophy is not a direct inquiry into any particular philosophical problem. It is an inquiry into what historical philosophers thought. History of philosophy: methodology

  8. History of Philosophy vs. Philosophy But the content is still philosophical. So in order to understand the content of what the figures said, you need to know some philosophy. History of philosophy: methodology

  9. The Period of Study: 585BC - 529AD The Beginning: 585BC- Thales predicts an eclipse, this is traditionally marked as the beginning of Ancient Philosophy. The End: 529AD- the Christian Emperor Justinian prohibited pagans from teaching in the schools. Timeline of ancient philosophy

  10. Subdivides into three periods of unequal duration and importance: Presocratic Period Period of Schools Period of Scholarship Timeline of ancient philosophy

  11. The presocratics

  12. [From 585BC to whenever Socrates changed the focus of philosophy (469-399BC).] Breaks down into three sub-periods: The Milesian Revolution Parmenides The Pluralists The Presocratics

  13. The Milesians (pg. 13-18) (So named because they came from Miletus, in the Eastern Mediterranean.) Three main members: Thales Anaximander Anaximenes The Presocratics: 1) the milesians

  14. The Milesian Revolution 585BC- Thales predicted an eclipse. This was a significant achievement of the enlightenment tradition taking hold in the ancient world. He was a leading figure in the “inquiry into nature”. The Presocratics: 1) the milesians

  15. The Milesian Revolution They did not explain things by appealing to the gods. They explained things in terms of what they called “nature”. Hence “inquiry into nature” The Presocratics: 1) the milesians

  16. The Milesian Revolution They thought reality has a nature and that natural phenomena are manifestations of changes in this nature. (pg. 14) The Presocratics: 1) the milesians

  17. The Milesian Revolution They challenged the idea that the regularity in the behavior of objects in the "natural" world should be understood as matter of design by a mind or intellect. Instead, the regularity of the behavior of objects could be understood as arising out of more fundamental qualities of the world. The Presocratics: 1) the milesians

  18. They were going against… Hesiod and the Theologists(pg. 16): Represent the older and traditional school of thought. In this school, the proper way to explain natural phenomena is in terms of the pantheon of gods: (1) Rain is a manifestation of Zeus's stormy mood.(2) Zeus is stormy in mood.----(3) It is raining. According to this explanation, rain is a manifestation of the mental life of the god, Zeus. The Presocratics: 1) The milesians

  19. An example of the new Milesian style of explanation (pg. 17): (1) Rain is condensed air.(2) The air here is now condensed.----(3) It is raining. The Presocratics: 1) The milesians

  20. The Elements They differed in what they thought this fundamental nature is made up of. What did Thales think? What did Anaximenies think? The Presocratics: 1) The milesians

  21. Confusion about Existence Parmenides thought that the inquirers into nature were confused about existence. As Parmenides understood them, the inquirers into nature thought that the objects salient in ordinary experience have their existence in terms of changes in the nature of reality. This, however, according to Parmenides, is impossible. The Presocratics: 2) Parmenides

  22. Confusion about Existence He argues that "reason" shows: 1) both that coming into or going out of existence is impossible 2) that reality is a "whole of a single kind and unchanging and perfect." The Presocratics: 2) Parmenides

  23. The argument for this conclusion about existence proceeds by reductio ad absurdum: Assume that x has come into (gone out of) existence. It follows that "it is not" is true of x before (or after) it came into (or went out of) existence. But this is absurd: "it is not" can never be true of anything. Otherwise, something could both exist and be nothing at all, which is impossible.==== Hence, the inquirers into nature are wrong: nothing comes into (goes out) of existence. The Presocratics: 2) Parmenides

  24. Does this argument work? If not, why? History of Philosophy Names and dates are important, but so is understanding the arguments! The Presocratics: 2) Parmenides

  25. From Whence Doth this Confusion Arise? "In no way may this prevail, that things that are not, are. Bar your thought from this way of inquiry, and do not let habit born from much experience compel you along this way to direct your sightless eye and sounding ear and tongue, but judge by reason the heavily contested testing spoken by me." (DK 28 B 7.) The Presocratics: 2) Parmenides

  26. “Reason” and “Experience” Parmenides thinks that… The Milesians rely on "reason" in their inquiries into nature, but they also rely on "habit born of much experience." It is an assumption of "experience" that things come into and go out of existence. This is a natural assumption, but "reason" shows that nothing comes into or goes out of existence. The Milesians and people generally are thus confused. The Presocratics: 2) Parmenides

  27. A Good thing to Know: Epistemology: the study of knowledge. Ontology: the study of being/existence. It’s good to be able to recognize which claim a philosopher is making. (But sometimes it isn’t always clear.) A Quick digression…

  28. A Good Thing to Know: A) The senses are illegitimate. Epistemological B) No objects pass in or out of existence. Ontological A quick digression

  29. Two Things to Note: 1. Parmenides and the Milesian inquirers are both part of the enlightenment tradition. Though they did not express this in Parmenides’ terms, the Milesiansseemed to hold that the ordinary conception of reality (in terms of the gods) is a misleading product of habitand that "reason" shows this conception to be confused. Parmenides just takes this idea a step further: the ordinary conception of reality as objects that come into and go out of existence is also a product of “habit born from much experience" that "reason" shows is confused. The Presocratics: 2) Parmenides

  30. Two Things to Note: 2. Parmenides' role in the enlightenment tradition is seminal in the history of philosophy. Parmenides is an early participant in long-lived philosophical controversy. His general contrast in human cognition between "reason" and "experience“ (although confused) becomes an integral part of the subsequent philosophical tradition. (I.e. Rationalism vs. Empiricism) There are important exceptions, but rationalism becomes the dominant position. The view in the subsequent philosophical tradition is that expertise is a matter of "reason," not "experience." The Presocratics: 2) Parmenides

  31. The People to Know: Empedocles Anaxagoras Leucippus Democritus You should also be relatively familiar with their particular theories. (Pg. 24-29) The Presocratics: 3) The Pluralists

  32. Pluralism The “Nature” of reality consists of different kinds of objects. This goes against the Milesians, who tried to reduce it to one type of object. Nothing comes into or goes out of existence, just as Parmenides had thought. But the inquiry into nature need not be understood to contradict this conception of reality. A Middle Road between the Milesians and Parmenides. The Presocratics: 3) The Pluralists

  33. The Atomic Account According to Democritus, atoms and void are the nature of reality. The atoms become arranged in the void in ways people typically, but mistakenly, take to be the ordinary objects salient in experience. The atoms form and break apart to make things, and this is what grounds change. But this is consistent with Parmenides because the only real things are the atoms and the void, and they never pass in or out of existence. The Presocratics: 3) The Pluralists

  34. The Atomists: The traditional conception of reality is a product of beliefs formed in sense experience. Sense experience is a "bastard" form of judgment that does not provide knowledge of what exists. Ordinary objects are the way arrangements of atoms in the void appear. Our senses lead us to think these conglomerates of atoms are real things. Only "reason" provides knowledge of what exists, and allows us to see that ordinary objects are not real. The Presocratics: 3) The Pluralists

  35. Three Important Points: 1. Democritus does not think that the atoms move according to laws of nature. The ancient Greeks, at this point in history, do not have the concept of a law of nature. 2. Democritus maintains the Milesian gap between the way things appear to human beings and the way they really are. 3. Democritus sharpens Parmenides's contrast between beliefs formed in "reason" and beliefs formed in "experience.” The Presocratics: 3) The Pluralists

  36. A Defense of the Inquiry into Nature Thales and the inquirers into nature may have followed a "backward-turning" method, as Parmenides maintains. They thought that objects in the traditional conception of reality exist in terms of changes in the underlying nature of reality. The Presocratics: 3) The Pluralists

  37. A Defense of the Inquiry into Nature But the Milesian ontology is not essential to the inquiry into nature. The pluralists offer a new ontology that doesn’t rely upon “backwards turning” arguments. The traditional conception of reality is just how the nature of reality appears to human beings when they rely on sense experience rather than the "legitimate" judgment of "reason”. We can still speak about things in the normal way, as long as we realize it isn’t ultimately true. The Presocratics: 3) The Pluralists

  38. Pg. 35-91 in the course text. Socrates

  39. The Historical Socrates Socrates is the best known figure in all of philosophy, but very little is known about him. This is because he didn’t write anything. What we know of Socrates comes almost exclusively from Plato. Socrates

  40. The Historical Socrates Probably what is clearest about Socrates is that he claimed supreme importance for something he called the love of wisdom. He faced a death sentence from the city of Athens rather than abandon his love of wisdom. He was tried and executed in 399 BC. Socrates was thought to corrupt the youth and so to have been in part responsible for Athen's downfall. Socrates

  41. Plato and the Character Socrates Plato's works take the form of dialogues. These dialogues are traditionally thought to fall into three periods: early, middle, and late. In many of these dialogues, Plato features a character named 'Socrates.‘ The dialogues (especially the dialogues from the early period) are the primary evidence for what the historical Socrates thought. Socrates

  42. KNOW THE DIALOGUES! The early dialogues in which we have the best version of Socrates tend to center around a search for definitions: Some of the early Dialogues: Euthyphro Apology Crito Protagoras Gorgias (For a full breakdown, see footnote b, on page 40.) Socrates: KNOW the dialogues!

  43. A *BRIEF* Example: Euthyphro: • Setting: takes place before his trial. • Main Characters: Socrates, Euthyphro • Central Question: What is piety? • Arguments: • the good life for a human being is a life of ethical virtue • expertise in living a life of ethical virtue is practical wisdom about ethical matters • practical wisdom about ethical matters consists in knowledge of what the ethical virtues are • knowledge of what the ethical virtues are is a matter of reason, not experience Socrates: KNOW THE DIALOGUES!

  44. YOU SHOULD KNOW MUCH MORE THAN THIS FOR EACH DIALOGUE COVERED IN CLASS! Socrates: KNOW THE DIALOGUES!

  45. Socrates seems to think that in order to know certain things (e.g., the nature of piety) we must have a clear definition. Why Socrates relentlessly searches for definitions is not immediately clear. The suggestion is that Euthyphro and others are confused about what the virtues are. To rid them of their confusion, Socrates forces them into contradiction. This is supposed to help them eliminate their false beliefs and hence their confusion. In the absence of the confusion produced by false beliefs, the suggestion is that Euthyphro and the other interlocutors would be left with the knowledge they claimed or otherwise seemed to possess at the outset. Socrates: The search for definitions

  46. The Good Life and Happiness Socrates embodies the enlightenment attitude. The Presocraticschampion reason over experience, and they are optimistic that they can move beyond the traditional understanding of the world. Socrates has this same attitude about the good life. Socrates: The Love of wisdom and the good life

  47. The Good Life and Happiness The historical Socrates seems to have believed that the good life is the life of ethical virtue and that living this life involves the exercise of a certain expertise or wisdom about ethical matters. The more usual opinion among the ancient Greeks would have been that the good life and the life of ethical virtue are different lives, and that the life of ethical virtue sometimes (perhaps even often) stands in the way of happiness and the good life. This creates a tension that (the character) Socrates spends much of the dialogues trying to overcome. He wants to prove that the good life is the ethical life. Socrates: The Love of wisdom and the good life

  48. Humans are Psychological Beings Socrates explains that his goal is "wisdom and truth and the greatest possible excellence of the soul." This would have been surprising to his audience. it was uncommon to understand the good life in terms of the "soul" (ψυχή). This point cannot be stressed enough. Although today it is common to understand human beings as psychological beings, this was not always so. Socrates seems to have taken the decisive step. Socrates: The Soul

  49. Proper Functioning He seems to have thought that human beings are psychological beings and that the soul can be improved or be made worse. (For human beings to be pyschological beings is for them to do what they do because of the states and processes in their souls.) In this way, according to Socrates, the quality of one's life is tied to the health of one's soul. If the soul is functioning poorly, then the individual makes poor choices and hence makes his or her life go badly. Socrates: The Soul

  50. Proper Functioning Socrates thought that the soul requires care and constant vigilance if it is to function properly. This care (which Socrates takes himself to provide in the pursuit he calls the love of wisdom) is thus of the utmost practical importance. What a human does, and to this extent whether his life is good and he finds happiness, is completely a matter of the proper functioning of the soul. Socrates: The Soul

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