Introduction to Comparative Government

1. Introduction to Comparative Government AP Comparative Government & Politics 6 THEMES Hoilman

2. #1: The Comparative Method • Three world approach: • “Advanced” democracies – well- established democratic gov. & high level of economic development; e.g. U.S.& U.K. (“First World”) • Communist & post-communist countries – some limits on individual freedom in order to divide wealth more equally (gov. control); e.g. Russia & China • Less developed countries (LDCs) & newly industrialized countries (NICs) (“Third World”) • LDCs – lack significant economic develop. • w/ tendency toward authoritarian gov.; e.g. Nigeria • NICs – rapid economic growth, tendency toward some democratization & political/social stability e.g. Mexico & Iran • http://youtu.be/4AivEQmfPpk Hoilman

3. #1: Comparative Method continued Formal v. Informal Politics • Formal politics is defined by law – the formal positions & organization of gov. (can be neatly outlined in a chart) • Informal politics is the way in which citizens organize themselves, define their interests & connect with policy-making activities of government – it may also include the behavior of politicians outside their defined responsibilities Hoilman

4. #1: Comparative Method continued • Political Change – the nature of world politics has changed significantly since the fall of U.S.S.R. (1991) b/c the world is no longer dominated by 2 superpowers & their alliances • e.g. democratization, political (in)stability, cleavages within society, state capacity or power, international pressures & globalization, & mobilization of the citizenry Hoilman

5. #1: Comparative Method continued • Integration of political & economic systems • Capitalism = less gov. control & citizens and businesses can make free economic decisions (neoliberalism is the movement toward more privatization & less gov. interference); gov. is less centralized, in general • Command = gov. direction regarding quotas, supply production, business opportunities, etc.; gov. is more centralized; based on philosophy of communism & the way in which communism translates into politics • Attitudes & behaviors of citizens and how they respond to economic policies & economic decision-making influence the actions of the government, especially regarding economic inefficiencies (e.g. large gap between rich & poor, trade deficits, outside influence of large corporations, etc.) Hoilman

6. #1: Comparative Method continued • Empirical v. Normative Approach • Empirical data is based on factual statements & statistics (e.g. infant mortality rate, GDP, GNP, population growth rates, military expenditures, etc.) • Normative issue approach requires value judgments (efficiency of government program(s), lack of public policy regarding an issue, “better” leader, protection of citizens, etc.) – not quantitative, but qualitative Hoilman

7. #1: Comparative Method continued • Single country studies – often called “case studies”; few generalizations can be made, but vital for testing theories, formulating concepts, etc. – high internal validity, but low external • Small n analysis – a few carefully chosen countries; e.g. Parliament in several countries is studied to design generalizations; most-similar (commonalities) or most-different approach (contrasting) • Large N analysis – lots of countries; mainly statistical; e.g. democratic stability as affected by the difference between presidential/executive institutions – higher external validity Hoilman

8. #1: Comparative Method continued • Systems theory – looking at an aspect or action of government through the system itself (e.g. nuclear weapons program: “inputs” – ideas & groups who influence the gov, including officials themselves; “output” – the policy the gov designs, “feedback” – the influence of the policy on future gov actions, more policies, and how citizens are affected by the policy, “environment” – domestic & international situations that arise b/c of the policy • Rational Choice theory – looking at the choices humans make which they believe are in their best interest regarding political or economic participation & drawing conclusions or inferences • Middle-level theory - comparisons of specific features of a government in an attempt to draw generalizations, but realizing the event may have unique features as well (e.g. revolutions can be very different) Hoilman

9. #2: Sovereignty, Authority, & Power • Sovereignty: ability to design policies & carry out actions within one’s borders independently from interference either from the inside or the outside; ultimate control over affairs • Authority: claim of legitimacy (right to rule; recognized by ruler and the ruled) • Power: ability to influence others to act or accept certain actions; those in political office are often those with more power; the government of a country can give / take power Hoilman

10. #2: Sovereignty, Authority & Power continued • Regime • The set of institutions that endure, regardless of leadership (presidential system, parliamentary, theocracy, etc. • Government • The part of the state with legitimate authority (public officials, elected leaders, etc.) • State • Basic unit of political organization with a permanent population, defined territory, governing institutions, sovereignty over its territory & int’l recognition (e.g. country) • Self-governing political entity (a nation is not a state; it is a territory of people who share a common culture or history) Hoilman

11. #2: Sovereignty, Authority & Power continued • Institution(s) • Stable, long lasting organization(s) with authority to turn political ideas into policy; e.g. legislature, executive, judiciary, council of advisors, assembly of religious experts • Institutions often create agencies to carry out policies or deal with a particular matter • Institutions may refer to organizations outside of the formal government (e.g. political parties, interest groups, media, etc.) Hoilman

12. #2: Sovereignty, Authority & Power continued • Legitimacy – the right to rule as determined by citizens’ perception of gov.; citizens belief that gov. has rightful power to compel obedience - Max Weber’s 3 sources of political legitimacy: • Traditional legitimacy – based on historical, cultural and/or religious experiences regarding who should rule & how (e.g. monarch, emperor, priestess, Ayatollah Khamenei, etc.) • Charismatic legitimacy - based on the dynamic personality of an individual /small group (e.g. clan chieftain, shaman, guru, prophet, Ayatollah Khoemeini, etc.) Hoilman

13. #2: Sovereignty, Authority & Power continued • Rational-legal legitimacy - based on a system of well-established laws and procedures (U.K., Mexico, Nigeria, Russia?) • Rule of law – no person is above the law; all will be held accountable to the laws & will only be punished as set forth by clear, objective, publicly disclosed laws; consistency, predictability, transparency (most modern, developed, stable states rely on this – Mexico & U.K.) • President Xi has been promising “rule of law” & cracking down on corruption with the CCP for the past two years. Hoilman

14. #2: Sovereignty, Authority & Power continued • Authority, power & legitimacy influence, and are influenced by, political culture & ideology • Political ideology: set of political values held by individuals regarding the basic goals of government & politics (what the government should or should not do re: foreign policy, military endeavors, taxation, etc.) – fascist, liberal, conservative, fundamentalist • Political culture: broad political beliefs, values, practices, & institutions the government is based upon; shared by large segments of the population (e.g. democracy, liberty, economic equality, patriotism, individualism, etc.) Hoilman

15. #3: Political & Economic Change • Types of Change: • Reform: • Change practices, not substance (not advocating overthrow); reformers want to influence business, environmental, religious, or taxation practices; often must wait until elections or become more involved in certain institutions (Mexican reforms regarding drug war, Nieto’s neoliberal reforms, Chinese economic reforms to privatize business or reduce corruption in the CCP, Iran’s allowance of 3G mobile) • Revolution: • Change at the most basic level involving the revision or overthrow of existing institutions; success often requires widespread participation (Russian Revolution 1917 or Iranian Revolution 1978) • Coup d’etats (“blows to the state”): • Replaces leadership, but undirected – often carried out by the military in countries where leaders have already taken control by force & are weak; usually results in another coup(Nigerian coup d’etat 1993) Hoilman

16. #3: Political & Economic Change continued TRENDS & PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT • Democratization - expansion of democracy; transition process & outcome • Liberal democracies • Fair, free & competitive elections • Civil liberties • Rule of law • Neutrality of the judiciary • Open civil society • Civilian control of the military Hoilman

17. #3: Political & Economic Change continued • Illiberal democracies • Coined in 1997 by FareedZakaria, Indian-American journalist, correspondent & author • “Democratically” elected leaders restrict rights & consolidate the power of their government • Basic civil liberties (freedom of speech, religion, press, etc.) are often denied • Is not qualified as “free” by Freedom House (NGO that conducts research on democracy, political freedom & human rights) • Some of these leaders may believe they have the right to act so long as they hold regular elections (Russia) Hoilman

18. #3: Political & Economic Change continued • Economic Policy Shifts • Organizational re-structuring/economic liberalization: movement toward market economy & away from command economy; involves decentralization, de-regulation, removal of subsidies & tariffs & privatization e.g. Russia 1990’s, Mexico today, China under Deng) • Mixed economy: blending of characteristics of socialist & capitalist economies; some economic freedom & some gov. regulation e.g. China • Any economic reforms influence, and are influenced by, political change (in China, CCP fights for weiwen(status quo); there is a cycle known as fang-shou(loosening of economic restrictions, but tightening of political restrictions which is uncommon) Hoilman

19. #3: Political & Economic Change continued • Revival of Ethnic or Cultural Politics • 21st C. globalization requires an understanding & acknowledgment of the economic & political culture of those with whom we interact • Nationalism remains strong in many parts of the world as well and can influence economic & political practices (e.g. trade policies, military aggression, regime change, etc.) • “Populist nationalism” is on the rise and is characterized by charismatic leaders using rhetoric that favors national interests over global interests and sparks emotional enthusiasm between leaders & followers who believe they can be part of a “revolution” of sorts • Supranational organizations, or intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) are influenced by these politics too (U.N., E.U., OAU, NATO, etc.) Hoilman

20. #4: Citizens, Society & State • Divisions within society (religion, ethnicity, gender, race, social or economic classes) are known as social cleavages & they dramatically influence political & economic activity e.g. What mix of each group does a country have? What laws are in place to inhibit or protect the rights of certain groups? Do political elites come from a certain group? Are some groups denied access to the political or social system? Hoilman

21. #4: Citizens, Society, & State continued • Citizen-state relationships • Citizens’ belief that they can influence the gov. (political efficacy) influences their participation • Citizens’ opinions about how government should operate (political ideology) influences decisions about voting or which groups to support • Political socialization – the way in which citizens learn about politics (family, media, gov., etc.) • Voting behavior – consider whether elections are regular, competitive, free & inclusive and whether turnout is high or low • Social cleavages influence citizens’ beliefs, participation, involvement in groups, political influence etc. Hoilman

22. #5: Political Institutions • Political institutions – structures of the political system (both formal & informal) • Legislative, executive, judiciary, Supreme Leader, P.M., etc. (may or may not be distinct & separate branches with or without checks of power) • Levels of government • Federal system – shares/divides power with sub-units or geographical provinces or states (Mexico, U.S., Russia, Nigeria) • Unitary system – concentrates power within one central government (Britain, China, Iran) http://youtu.be/rNu8XDBSn10 Hoilman

23. #5: Political Institutions continued • Other institutions • Linkage institutions – connect citizens with policy-making arena (e.g. interest groups, political parties, electoral systems, public opinion polling organizations, media, etc.) • Supranational organizations – globalization has given rise to an increase in supranational organizations – groups that go beyond state boundaries • Relationships with other countries & membership in these organizations can influence trade (NAFTA), economics & politics (OPEC, E.U., OAU), military security (NATO), & international peace (U.N.) Hoilman

24. #6: Public Policy • Policies are created to address certain issues & solve certain problems • Created by legislative vote, executive decision, judicial rulings, or a combination of all three • May be influenced by political parties or interest groups too • Governments differ in how they approach issues and what importance they assign to the issues Hoilman

25. #6: Public Policy continued • Economic performance • Domestic (unemployment, inflation, GDP, etc.) and international (trade, export v. import policies, GDP, etc.) • Social welfare of citizens • Health, employment, transportation infrastructure, family assistance, education, etc. (prioritization of needs, budgetary concerns, efficiency of bureaucracy, etc.) • Civil liberties, rights, & freedoms • Civil rights (group protections such as voting, equality of opportunity, etc.) & civil liberties (individual protections of behaviors – speech, religion, trial by jury, etc.) • Government protection & interpretation of laws • Freedom House international rankings (1-7) • Environment • Decisions regarding prevention & reduction of harmful effects on the environment & natural resources, and how gov. will address negative behaviors Hoilman