CHAPTER 4 The Church Fathers And Heresies

1. CHAPTER 4The Church Fathers And HeresiesThe Popes, the Church Fathers, and the Ecumenical Councils, led by the Holy Spirit, guided the Church through the treacherous waters of heresy.

2. CHAPTER 4The Church Fathers And Heresies The persecutions endured by the early Church were followed by a series of heresies that rocked the Church to its foundations. From the beginning, many Christian thinkers used Greek philosophy and tradition to help explain Christian truths. Over the course of the third to fifth centuries, Popes and bishops led the Church through a number of Ecumenical Councils addressing new controversies and developing new theological traditions.

3. CHAPTER 4The Church Fathers And Heresies The Athanasian Creed that emerged expresses the Catholic belief in the three Divine Persons of the Blessed Trinity and the Incarnation of God the Son, the Second Person of the Trinity. It emphasizes the equality of each of the three persons of the Trinity. The Creed begins and ends with an anathema (a condemnation) on those who do not accept it. Each sentence, word, and phrase of the Creed was carefully selected in order to adequately express the Catholic Faith. While some of these terms may seem difficult to understand, members of the early Church suffered torture, exile, and death in order to preserve and transmit the unadulterated Deposit of Faith.

4. PART IEarly Heresies • St. Thomas Aquinas defines heresy as “a species of unbelief, belonging to those who profess the Christian Faith but corrupt its dogmas.” • Orthodox Catholicism derives from the Deposit of Faith (the sum of all truths revealed in Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition, and entrusted to the care of the Church). • Heresy derives from the same Deposit of Faith, but denies or alters some part of it. • A person may enter into heresy in one of two ways: • Material heresy: entered into through ignorance of the truth, or misunderstanding or incomprehension of some aspect of the Faith. This species is merely a mistake that needs correcting. • Formal heresy: freely choosing, with full understanding of the teachings of the Church, to hold doctrines that are contradictory to those of the Church.

5. PART IEarly Heresies The first heresies were particularly dangerous because they attacked the figure of Christ himself. Greek philosophy spoke of the logos, a term used by St. Paul referring to God the Son. Neo-Platonic thought taught that the logos was the most exalted creation of the Father, rather than God himself. They also viewed the material world as inferior to the world of ideas. Therefore, these heresies denied the divinity of Jesus, and de-emphasized, if not denied, his humanity. They made Jesus inferior to the Father, and set the stage for Arianism, the worst crisis that the Church would ever endure.

6. GNOSTICISM “Gnosticism” comes from the Greek word “gnosis” meaning knowledge. It refers to a heresy in the early Church that taught that salvation came from knowledge. Gnosticism taught that secret knowledge had been given to a few. It pitted the Demiurge, the creator god of the material world, against the remote and unknowable Divine Being. Therefore, the material world was against and inferior to the spiritual world.

7. GNOSTICISM The redeemer was sent by the Divine Being to release the divine sparks, found among some people, so that they could return to the Divine Being. This was only possible if the individual understood the secret knowledge and practiced the Gnostic rituals. Gnosticism rejected the Church’s teaching regarding both Christ’s human and divine nature. It taught that Jesus did not inhabit a human body, nor did he die on the Cross. The principle of finding the light within oneself through pagan ceremonies is the essence of New Age religions.

8. MARCIONISM (144-400’S) Tradition teaches that Marcion was excommunicated by his father, a bishop, on grounds of immorality. Going to Rome, he started his own Christian community AD 140. This heresy grew into one of the greatest threats to orthodox Christianity and lasted well into the fifth century. Adopting the idea from Gnosticism, he taught that the God of the Jews was the Demiurge. He believed that Christ was sent from the God of Love, who has no connection to the law, to bring about the destruction of the Jewish God.

9. MARCIONISM (144-400’S) The dualism of Law and Love is the main thesis of his system. He only recognized the writings of St. Paul because of their teachings on the Law. He felt the Apostles were blinded by the Jewish Law and so rejected their writings, accepting only a purified version of St. Luke. Unwittingly, this heresy helped the Catholic Church’s development of the New Testament Canon of Scripture.

10. MANICHAEISM (250s–1000s) Manichaeism was the most developed branch of Gnosticism. Founded by Mani (AD 216-276) it taught the dualist conflict between darkness and light. The heresy taught that Satan had stolen light particles and placed them in the brains of humans. The goal of Manichaeism was to release this light so that it could return to its original source. Manichaeism borrowed heavily from St. Paul, and its followers practiced strict asceticism. It appealed to many Romans by demanding a “stricter” moral life than Christianity, and by appealing to philosophy. St. Augustine was a fervent follower of Manichaeism for many years. Similar heresies, such as the Albigensians (Cathars) appeared in the Middle Ages.

11. MONTANISM (156-200s) Montanism was an apocalyptic movement founded by Montanus based on private revelations. He taught that a new, heavenly kingdom was about to begin in Pepuza, a small town in Phrygia. Montanism taught that Christians who had fallen from grace could never be forgiven or redeemed. It also placed a high emphasis on the ascetical life. Its most famous adherent was Tertullian.

12. DOCETISM (30s-100s) Docetism, believing that matter was corrupt, denied that Christ was truly human or that he suffered the pain of the crucifixion. Its name comes from the Greek dokesis meaning appearance. It often taught that someone else miraculously switched places with Jesus before the crucifixion.

13. PART IIThe Ecumenical Councils In order to meet the challenges posed by various heresies, the Church convened a number of Ecumenical Councils. The word ecumenical comes from the Greek meaning “the whole inhabited world.” The first was in Nicaea AD 325. Altogether there have been twenty-one Ecumenical Councils, the last one being the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965). The first six councils addressed Christological issues providing theological answers to the question, “Who is Jesus Christ?”

14. PART IIThe Ecumenical Councils • Types of councils: • Ecumenical Council: A council for the entire Catholic Church. At present it must be convened by the Pope who governs the Council and he alone has the power to accept or reject its decrees. Its teachings on doctrine are considered infallible. • Plenary council: A council including all of the bishops of a nation. • Provincial council: An assembly of the metropolitan archbishop with his suffragan bishops. • Diocesan council: A synod, or meeting of a bishop with representatives of the clergy, religious, and laity in matters of diocesan discipline or procedure. • The first seven Ecumenical Councils are recognized by both the East and West.

15. PART IIIThe Church Fathers A number of great and holy leaders arose to lead the Church, explain the faith, and meet the unique challenges posed by different heresies. These Fathers shared orthodoxy in doctrine, holiness, notoriety, and antiquity. While there is no definitive list of Church Fathers, they are typically divided between the Latin (West) and Greek (East). The study of Church Fathers is known as patrology or patristics. Their writings offer an opportunity to learn and appreciate the wealth of the earliest Christian traditions. Because of their proximity to the Apostles, their clarification and interpretation of Scripture is a standard reference point. A Doctor of the Church is a specific title granted by the Pope to those whose development of theology and personal sanctity are exemplary.

16. ST. AMBROSE OF MILAN St. Ambrose, the son of the Praetorian Prefect for Gaul, studied law, became a lawyer, and eventually became governor. Upon the death of Milan’s Arian bishop, the people clamored for St. Ambrose to succeed him, although he was only a catechumen at the time. He was soon baptized, ordained, and installed as bishop. St. Ambrose defended the Church’s independence from the state. When Emperor Theodosius slaughtered 700 people AD 390, St. Ambrose excommunicated him and forced the emperor to make public penance. The emperor was pardoned after eight months of prayer and penance. As bishop he was an ardent opponent of Arianism, he encouraged monasticism, introduced hymns into the liturgy, and facilitated theological exchange with the east.

17. THE APOSTLE’S CREED Although the contents are based upon the New Testament, and it is a profession of faith in the Apostle’s teaching, the author and exact date of the Apostle’s Creed are unknown. It was first mentioned by St. Ambrose AD 390. It is based on a baptismal creed used in Rome, known as the Roman Creed, and for this reason it was particularly accepted in the West where it was always associated with the baptismal rite. The creed is divided into three sections: The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

18. ST. JEROME St. Jerome spent five years in the Syrian desert leading an ascetical life with companions. It was there that he learned Hebrew, which would be vital for his future work. Always leading a penitential life, he served as a secretary to Pope St. Damasus I, and later spent the last years of his life in Bethlehem as the head of a new monastery. Although a learned scholar and writing on many of the important issues in his day, his most important work was the translation of the Bible from original sources into Latin known as the Vulgate. This version of the Bible is still the normative text in the Church today.

19. TRANSLATIONS OF THE BIBLE It is widely believed that St. Jerome’s Vulgate translation of the Bible is the most faithful translation because he had access to manuscripts of the original languages that no longer exist. The Douay-Rheims translation into English was based on the Latin Vulgate. The Church teaches that the books of the Bible are divinely inspired. After careful study, the Catholic Church will grant its imprimatur (ecclesiastical approval) to books, including translations of the Bible, in which it finds nothing that is contrary to Catholic Faith or morals. At present there are five English translations of the Bible which have been given an imprimatur (ecclesiastical approval) : The Douay-Rheims, the New Jerusalem Bible, the New American Bible (used in liturgies), The Revised Standard Version (those editions which have the deuterocanonical books), and the New Revised Standard Version.

20. THE CANON OF THE SCRIPTURE The word “canon” comes from the Greek meaning “reed” or “measuring rod.” As applied to Scriptures it means the list of writings that have been included in the Bible and proclaimed by the Church to be divinely inspired. The Synod of Rome (AD 382) found 27 books of the New Testament and 46 books of the Old Testament to be divinely inspired. However, the status of seven books of the Old Testament were still disputed. These books, called deuterocanonical, were written in Greek, rather than Hebrew, and were included in the Jewish Septuagint (Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures) that was used by the early Christians. The Councils at Hippo (AD 393) and Carthage (AD 397 and 419) established that the deuterocanonical books were divinely inspired and were to be included in the Old Testament. The Ecumenical Councils of Nicaea II (787), Florence (1335), and Trent (1545) ratified this decision.

21. ST. JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, THE GOLDEN MOUTHED St. John Chrysostom studied law in Antioch and later theology in the influential Antiochene school. First deciding to be a monk he spent eight years following the Pachomian Rule with the last two spent as an anchorite or hermit. Returning to Antioch due to ill health he was ordained a priest AD 386. He became a renowned preacher and earned the name Chrysostom, which means golden mouthed. His sermons captured the deep spiritual meaning of Scripture without excluding their literal sense.

22. ST. JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, THE GOLDEN MOUTHED He combined this biblical meaning with real-world, practical application to the Christian life. He also wrote a book on the importance and duties of a priest. Against his wishes, the emperor named him Patriarch of Constantinople AD 398. Preaching against moral laxity, including that in the imperial family, made him unpopular with the empress who twice had St. John Chrysostom removed as patriarch and banished.

23. PART IV Heresies of the Fourth and Fifth Centuries The fourth and fifth centuries AD saw the ending of persecutions and the rise of great Church leaders. The new found freedom led to the rise of great theological and doctrinal developments, but also to the rise of heresies. Ecumenical councils made pronouncements on Trinitarian and Christological beliefs. Some of the causes of these heresies were inaccurate interpretations of the Bible and imprecise theological explanations. The two great centers of theological learning were Alexandria and Antioch.

24. PART IV Heresies of the Fourth and Fifth Centuries Both appealed to Apostolic founding and traditions in defining the theology of the Incarnation and the Trinity. The School in Alexandria gave special status to the divinity of Christ and the unity of his person, along with an allegorical exegesis of the Scripture. The Antiochene School focused more on the literal and historical meaning of Scripture and tended to isolate Christ’s human and divine natures.

25. CHRISTOLOGICAL HERESIESARIANISM (Fourth Century) Arius (250-336) was a priest in Alexandria who had studied in Antioch. He was charismatic and attracted huge crowds of listeners and devotees. Arius claimed that Christ is neither God, nor equal to the Father, but rather an exceptional creature raised to the level of “Son of God.” This heresy was especially dangerous because it denied the divinity of Christ, therefore effectively denying the most central beliefs of Christianity, including the Trinity and Redemption. This heresy found a wide following, and eventually spread to the entire Eastern Church, part of the Western Church, and the Germanic tribes.

26. THE COUNCIL OF NICAEA St. Athanasius (296-373) marshaled the necessary orthodox forces to defeat the Arian heresy. Even when almost all of the Eastern Church had become Arian, St. Athanasius remained firm and would not be silenced. The Emperor Constantine pushed for a General Council at Nicaea in 325 to settle the issue of Arianism and to bring unity to the Empire. This was the first of several Ecumenical Councils. Pope St. Sylvester I, who was too old and infirm to travel, led the council through his legate Bishop Hosius of Cordova, Spain. St. Athanasius proposed a statement using the Greek term homoousios which means “of the same essence or substance.” This term was accepted and the result was the Nicene Creed.

27. THE COUNCIL OF NICAEA With the Arian view defeated, all of the bishops, except for two signed the agreed Creed. These two were exiled by the emperor. Unfortunately, the Emperor Constantine reversed his decision, permitted the return of the exiled bishops, and forced the leaders of the Nicene party into exile, which included St. Athanasius. Before the Emperor Constantine died AD 337, he was baptized on his deathbed by the Arian Patriarch of Contantinople. The East soon succumbed to Arianism and the heresy even spread to the West.

28. THE COUNCIL OF NICAEA • Different forms of Arianism included: (1) Anomoeans who stressed the difference between the Father and the Son; (2) Scriptural purist who rejected the word homoousios because it does not appear in the Bible. (3) Several semi-Arian groups who stressed differences and similarities between the Father and the Son with the Greek term homoiousios (similar substance). • Later the Council of Paris affirmed the Nicene Creed and St. Athanasius returned from exile. This Nicene Creed was reaffirmed by the council of Constantinople (AD 381).

29. THE NICENE-CONSTANTINOPOLITAN CREED • The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed came out of the Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople (AD 381). • It is longer than the Nicene Creed in three distinct places: (1) The second section concerning the Son; (2) The third section concerning the Holy Spirit; (3) The last section concerning the Church, Baptism, the forgiveness of sins, and the Resurrection. • This Creed is recited on most Sundays as the Profession of Faith following the homily in the Mass.

30. ST. HILARY OF POITIERS: “THE ATHANASIUS OF THE WEST” St. Hilary of Poitiers was a leading Latin theologian of his day. He ardently defended the orthodox position against the Arians, and so is called “The Athanasius of the West.” Rather than condemning all heretics without exception, he often told semi-Arians who were moving toward reconciliation that their arguments were merely semantics and that their ideas were actually the same.

31. THE THREE CAPPADOCIANS St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory of Nazianzus, and St. Gregory of Nyssa spent their lives working against the Arian heresy. Their work bore fruit in the Council of Constantinople (AD 381) when Arianism was decisively defeated.

32. ST. BASIL THE GREAT St. Basil was marked by his strong intellect combined with a deep personal holiness and keen administrative abilities. He lived as a hermit and his ascetical life set the example for the structure and spirit of Eastern Monasticism. Unlike the west, Eastern Monasticism never fractured into new orders and rules, but has remained together as an organic whole under St. Basil’s Rule. He worked to see that priests were rigorously and properly trained, and worked to care for the material and spiritual needs of the laity. He developed a system of hospitals and social service institutions to serve the poor. He authored the Liturgy of St. Basil which is still used in the East during Lent, and its influence is seen in the Eucharistic Prayer IV used in the Roman Missal. As bishop St. Basil encountered opposition from the emperors and other churchmen regarding Arianism.

33. St. Gregory of Nazianzus, “The Theologian” St. Gregory received a classical education in Athens. He has often been given the title “Theologian” because of his writings. He devoted much writing to the Holy Spirit. Through his preaching in Constantinople, he helped to bring the Arians back to the orthodox Faith. Like St. Basil, he led a rigorous ascetical life and became a bishop in Sasima around 372.

34. ST. GREGORY OF NYSSA St. Gregory, the younger brother of St. Basil, was forced into exile because of his deep opposition to Arian beliefs. He utilized neo-Platonic philosophy in his theological work. He defended the popular title of Mary, “Theotokos,” which is Greek for Mother of God, or more literally “the one who gave birth to God.”

35. APOLLINARIANISM (ca. 360–381) Apollinaris ardently supported the orthodox position, especially against the Arians, but his unguided fervor led him into heresy. Though he believed that Christ had a human body, he denied the existence of a human mind and will in Christ as a defense against Arianism. Therefore, it would appear that Christ did not live a complete life as a man. This is incompatible with the Church’s view that Jesus was true God and true Man. Beginning with councils in Rome from 371–380 Apollinarianism was declared erroneous.

36. NESTORIANISM (ca. 351 – ca. 451) Nestorius became the Patriarch of Constantinople AD 428. In an effort to escape Apollinarianism, Nestorius maintained that Christ was the unity of a divine person and a human person. He attempted to eliminate the term Theotokos, teaching that Mary was the mother of Christ, but not the Mother of God. According to Nestorius, Jesus is the result of the union of two separate persons, one man and one God. The orthodox position is that Jesus is one Person with two natures, human and divine. St. Cyril of Alexandria described the relationship of the two natures as the Hypostatic Union. This doctrine was accepted in the Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon. The Third Ecumenical Council at Ephesus (431) declared Mary as the true Mother of God. Nestorius, who refused to recant, was exiled.

37. MONOPHYSITISM (400s-600s) Monophysitism claimed that there is only one nature in Christ. The name is derived from the Greek monos (alone, single) and physis (nature). It was a reaction to Nestorianism, attempting to stress Christ’s divinity, with Christ’s human nature being assumed into his Divine nature. One version, Eutychianism, was initiated by Eutyches who taught that Christ’s human nature was absorbed into the divine, like a drop of water is absorbed into the ocean. Pope St. Leo spoke through his legates in the Council of Chalcedon (451) declaring that Jesus Christ is the God-man, one Person with two natures. It was declared, “Peter has spoken through Leo.”

38. MONOPHYSITISM (400s-600s) The cumulative effect of these heresies was a weakening of the Roman Empire, and the creation of splinter Christian groups in the East. Recent common declarations of faith between the Catholic and Coptic, Ethiopian, and Syrian Orthodox Churches have concluded that they no long hold a monophysite position.

39. GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR: “APOSTLE OF ARMENIA” Bishop Gregory the Illuminator (257–337) began the Christianization of the Armenian people. He did so by first converting the king, Tiridates III, and then the people. This model of evangelization would be followed in the centuries to come. Armenia enjoys the distinction of being the first nation to officially become Christian AD 314. Unfortunately, most of the Armenian people broke away from the Church over the issue of monophysitism, although a segment is still in communion with Rome and has its own Eastern Catholic rite.

40. POPE ST. LEO THE GREAT Pope St. Leo (d. 461) did much to consolidate papal power. The origin of this authority is based on the words of Christ, “You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my Church.” With a firm conviction of God’s will, Pope St. Leo secured a rescript from Emperor Valentinian III acknowledging papal jurisdiction in the West. His strong leadership in dealing with heresies, his dealings with the barbarian threat, and his administration of the Church earned him the title “the Great.”

41. MONOTHELITISM (600s) Monothelitism is the doctrine that professes the existence of only one will in Christ, but still maintains that he has two natures. It name comes from the Greek mono (alone, single) and thelos (one who wills). The heresy originated with the emperor as a way to reconcile the Monophysites with the church and to bring unity to the empire. Patriarch Sergius of Constantinople approved the formula and wrote to Pope Honorius to clarify the matter. The Pope approved of Sergius’s handling of the matter and used the words “one will” in his reply, which the emperor and Patriarch used in an official document.

42. MONOTHELITISM (600s) Two councils in Constantinople (not ecumenical) accepted this formula. The Pope’s use of the term “one will” in this private letter to the Patriarch is often used as evidence against Papal Infallibility. However, it does not meet the conditions for infallibility as the Pope did not define a matter of doctrine for the entire Church, nor was it his intention to descend into theological details. It does show evidence that the other Churches, including the Patriarch of Constantinople, would appeal to the papacy to settle theological issues. Later, the Church developed precise language in defining its position that Jesus had two natures (human and divine) and two wills (human and divine).

43. DOGMATIC AND SACRAMENTAL HERESIES: DONATISM (311-411) Donatism rejected the validity of the Sacraments celebrated by priests and bishops who had betrayed the Faith during persecution or who had in other ways sinned. They identified the true Church only with themselves and even rebaptized those who joined their sect. St. Augustine was their chief opponent. He developed the Catholic position that Christ is the true minister of every Sacrament, even if the person celebrating the Sacrament is in a state of sin. St. Augustine separated the worthiness of the priest from the validity of the Sacrament. The Donatists were suppressed by the state AD 411, but were never fully defeated until Islam overran the Church in Africa in the seventh and eighth centuries.

44. PELAGIANISM (late 300s-431) Pelagianism taught that man can be redeemed and sanctified without grace. It denied the existence of Original Sin, as well as its transmission to the human family. The Sacraments were superfluous since salvation could be obtained by human effort. These views were condemned at the councils of Carthage and Milevis AD 416 and AD 418 the Pope excommunicated its founders. These issues surrounding the Fall, Original Sin, and grace reappeared during the Middle Ages and again at the time of the Reformation.

45. ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO St. Augustine (354–430) was perhaps the greatest Father of the Church. He was a pastor, penitent, monk, preacher, bishop, teacher, and theologian. No other theologian rivaled his importance until St. Thomas Aquinas. St. Augustine was born to a pagan father and a Christian mother (St. Monica). He lived a dissolute life for many years before converting to the Faith. During this time he cohabited with a woman with whom he had a child and later became deeply involved with the heresy of Manichaeism.

46. ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO Upon moving to Milan he found great intellectual stimulation in neo-Platonic philosophy and the preaching of St. Ambrose. After a conversion experience he resolved to become Catholic and to abandon his sinful life. He and his son were baptized. However, he soon suffered tragedy as his mother, who had prayed for her son’s conversion her entire life, died, and his son died the following year. He returned to his birthplace in North Africa where he established a monastic community and lived a life dedicated to prayer and penance. Upon a visit to Hippo, he was seized by the people and ordained a priest by the bishop. Four years later he became a bishop.

47. ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO St. Augustine was a voluminous writer who addressed all of the major heresies of his day: Manicheans, Donatists, Pelagians, Arians, and the pagans. His theology addresses the Trinity, grace, the Fall, Original Sin, repentance, Sacraments, predestination, and atonement. St. Augustine’s theology and writings came to be adopted as the official teaching of the Church. A number of religious orders adopted his rule in the Middle Ages. By the time of his death the temporal, social, and economic order of the Roman Empire was ending. His writings set the theological tone in the West, and his philosophy and theology dominated Christian thought for some eight hundred years until the advent of Scholasticism and St. Thomas Aquinas.

48. PART V Christianity: Official Religion of the Roman Empire For political reasons the state wanted religious unity and uniformity. The Church in the East, influenced by the growing power of the Patriarch of Constantinople under the strong influence of the emperor, tended to accept a role of the Church which was subservient to the interests of the state. The dual role as head of state and leader of the Church on the part of the emperor was called caesaropapism. The emperor played a major role in selecting the patriarch who was then beholden to the emperor.

49. PART V Christianity: Official Religion of the Roman Empire In the West as well, the papacy wanted a good working relationship with the state. However, the Church in the west did not allow anyone, even the emperor, to be above the law of Christ. When Constantine abandoned Rome, it left the papacy with temporal power in addition to its spiritual power. When the state collapsed, the papacy was there to defend and preserve the Faith and culture of the people.

50. CONSTANTINE’S ASCENDANCY After the Edict of Milan, Constantine and Licinius ruled the Roman Empire. AD 321 Licinius began a persecution of bishops and clergy, and AD 324 he declared war on Constantine. Licinius was defeated and religious toleration was enjoyed throughout the Empire. Constantine freed the Church and priests from taxation, individual churches were permitted to receive donations, work on Sunday was forbidden, and crucifixion as a punishment was ended.