Understanding Computer Networks: Addresses, Protocols, and Networking

1. Chapter 15 Networks Addresses

2. Networking Computer network: A collection of computing devices that are connected in various ways in order to communicate and share resources.

3. Networking Usually, the connections between computers in a network are made using physical wires or cables. However, some connections are wireless, using radio waves or infrared signals. The generic term node or host refers to any device on a network.

4. Networking Data transfer rate: • The speed with which data is moved from one place on a network to another. • Also referred to as bandwidth. Data transfer rate is a key issue in computer networks.

5. Networking Another key issue in computer networks is the protocols they use. A protocol is a set of rules describing how two entities interact.

6. Networking Computer networks have opened up an entire frontier in the world of computing called the client/server model.

7. Networking File server: • A computer that stores and manages files for multiple users on a network. Web server: • A computer dedicated to responding to requests (from a browser client) for web pages. Mail server: • A computer dedicated to sending/receiving email.

8. Types of Networks Local-Area Network (LAN). A network that connects a relatively small number of machines in a relatively close geographical area.

9. LAN Topologies Various configurations, called topologies, have been used to administer LANs. • Ring topology: a configuration that connects all nodes in a closed loop on which messages travel in one direction. • Star topology: a configuration that centers around one node to which all others are connected and through which all messages are sent. • Bus topology: all nodes are connected to a single communication line that carries messages in both directions.

10. LAN Topologies

11. Types of Networks Wide-area network (WAN) A network connecting two or more LANs over a potentially large geographic distance. Often one particular node on a LAN is set up to serve as a gatewayto handle all communication going between that LAN and other networks.

12. Types of Networks

13. Types of Networks Communication between networks is called internetworking. The Internet, as we know it today, is essentially the ultimate wide-area network, spanning the entire globe.

14. Types of Networks Metropolitan-area network (MAN) • The communication infrastructures that have been developed in and around large cities. • Often use wireless or optical fiber. • York’s networking systems constitute a MAN.

15. So, who owns the Internet? Nobody • No single person or company owns the Internet or even controls it entirely. A wide-area network, made up of many smaller networks. • These smaller networks are often owned and managed by a person or organization. The Internet is really defined by how connections are made between networks.

16. Internet Connections Internet backbone High-speed networks that carry Internet traffic. These networks are provided by companies such as AT&T, GTE, and IBM. High data transfer rates • 1.5 to 600 megabits/sec. Redundancy

17. Internet Connections Internet service provider (ISP) A company that provides other companies or individuals with access to the Internet.

18. Internet Connections Various technologies have been used to connect a home computer to the Internet: • A phone modem (modulator/demodulator) converts computer data into analog audio signals for transfer over a telephone line, and then a modem at the destination converts it back into data. • Simple implementation • Limited bandwidth – 64 kilobits/sec.

19. Internet Connections Broadband • Any connection in which transfer speeds are faster than 128 kilobits/sec. • A digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular copper phone lines to transfer digital data to and from the phone company’s central office. • A cable modemusesthe coaxial cable that transfer TV signals.

20. Internet Connections • Download • Data travelling to your computer • Upload • Data travelling to a remote computer • Speeds quotes are for downloads • May be several times faster than uploads

21. Packet Switching To improve the efficiency of transferring information over a shared communication line, messages are divided into fixed-sized, numbered packets. Packet Switchingis a digital networking communications method that groups all transmitted data – regardless of content, type, or structure – into suitably-sized blocks, called packets. Packet switching features delivery of variable-bit-rate data streams (sequences of packets) over a shared network. When traversing network adapters, switches, routers and other network nodes, packets are buffered and queued, resulting in variable delay and throughput depending on the traffic load in the network. 15-18

22. Packet Switching

23. Packet Switching Network devices called routers are used to direct packets between networks. To ensure that data does not degrade as it travels long distances, repeaters are installed along the line to strengthen (reclock) the signal. 15-18

24. 15.2 - Open Systems Proprietary system • A system that uses technologies kept private by a particular commercial vendor. One system couldn’t communicate with others, leading to the need for… Interoperability • The ability of software and hardware on multiple machines and from multiple commercial vendors to communicate. Leading to… Open systems • Systems based on a common network architecture and a suite of protocols used in its implementation.

25. Open Systems The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) established the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model. Each layer deals with a particular aspect of network communication.

26. Current Standard The OSI’s 7 layer model is an ideal, but standard practice actually has 4 layers: • Application Layer • Transport Layer • Network Layer • Link Layer

27. Application Layer Consists of software units that communicate with each other across the Internet. Passes complete message to the Transport Layer… Examples of these “high-level” protocols include: • SMTP • POP3 • Telnet • FTP • HTTP

28. Transport Layer Receives complete messages from the Application layer. Divides the message into packets. Adds a sequence number to each packet. Attaches the destination address to each packet. Passes the packets to the Network Layer. Examples include: • TCP - Transmission Control Protocol • UDP - User Datagram Protocol

29. TCP TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol • TCP software breaks messages into packets, hands them off to the IP software for delivery, and then orders and reassembles the packets at their destination. UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol • It is an alternative to TCP. • The main difference is that TCP is highly reliable, at the cost of decreased performance, while UDP is less reliable, but generally faster.

30. Network Layer Receives addressed packets from the Transport Layer. Adds an intermediate address. • If the destination is within the current net, the intermediate and destination addresses are the same. • Otherwise, the intermediate address is for a router in the current net, which will pass the packet to an adjacent net. Passes the packet to the Link Layer.

31. IP …is the most common Network Layer. • Internet Protocol • IP software deals with the routing of packets through the maze of interconnected networks to their final destination. The combination of Transport (TCP) and Network (IP) layers is commonly used and referred to as TCP/IP.

32. Link Layer …deals with the details of the particular Local-Area Network (LAN). The LAN protocol controls which machine can send its message next: • Rings use tokens. • Stars use polling. • A bus uses CSMA/CD(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection). • A bus technology called Ethernet has become the industry standard for local-area networks.

33. Application Layer Application Layer Application Layer Transport Layer Transport Layer Transport Layer Network Layer Network Layer Network Layer Link Layer Link Layer Link Layer Protocol Layers

34. Network Protocols Network protocols are layered such that each one relies on the protocols that underlie it. This organization is sometimes referred to as a protocol stack.

35. High-Level Protocols Examples of “high-level” protocols include: • SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol • POP3 - Post Office Protocol • FTP - File Transfer Protocol • HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol • Telnet - for remote log-in A port is a numeric designation assigned to a particular high-level protocol.

36. Protocols & Ports

37. MIME Types Related to the idea of network protocols and standardization is the concept of a file’s MIME type. • MIME stands for Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension. • They define a standard for attaching specially formatted data. • Based on a document’s MIME type, an application program can decide how to deal with the data.

38. Firewalls Firewall • A machine and its software that serve as a special gateway to a network, protecting it from inappropriate access. • Filters the network traffic that comes in, checking the validity of the messages as much as possible, and perhaps denying some messages altogether. • Enforces an organization’s access control policy.

39. Firewalls

40. 15.3 - Network Addresses Hostname • A unique identification that specifies a particular computer on the Internet. An example: www.eecs.yorku.ca

41. Network Addresses Network software translates a hostname into its corresponding IP address. For example, in IPv4 the example hostname maps onto: 130.63.236.200

42. Network Addresses An IPv4 address is structured as four decimal numbers joined by dots (dotted decimal notation). Each decimal number is coded as an octet (8 bits):

43. Network Addresses There is NO correspondence between the parts of an IP address and its corresponding hostname. It’s accidental that there happen to be 4 components in the example hostname.

44. Network Addresses IPv4 is limited to just over 4 billion (2564) unique 4-byte (32 bit) addresses. IPv6 uses 128 bit addresses • 8 groups of 16 bits producing 2128 or 65,5368 addresses • Expressed in hexadecimal (binary would be very long) • IPv4-mapped IPv6 addresses 0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:FFFF:823F:ECC8

45. Domain Name System A hostname consists of several parts. Typically, there is a machine name followed by the domain name. In the example (www.eecs.yorku.ca) • “www” is the machine name; • “eecs.yorku.ca” is the domain name.

46. Domain Name System A domain name may be further separated into sections that specify the organization, and possibly a subset of an organization (subdomain). In the example above: “yorku” is called the domain, “eecs” is the subdomain.

47. Domain Name System The very last section of the domain name is called its top-level domain (TLD) name.

48. Domain Name System Organizations based in countries other than the United States use a top-level domain that corresponds to their two-letter country codes.

49. Domain Name System ICANN • International Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers • Responsible for the coordination of the global Internet's systems of unique identifiers and, in particular, ensuring its stable and secure operation Domain Squatting • Led to approval of new TLDs • Like “vanity” plates • .coke • $185K registration fee, $25K annual fee

50. Domain Name System The domain name system (DNS) is chiefly used to translate hostnames into numeric IP addresses. • DNS is an example of a distributed database. • If a server can resolve the hostname, it does so. • If not, that server asks another domain name server.