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Chapter 2

Chapter 2. The Research Enterprise in Psychology. Critical Thinking. Be an informed consumer!. Be an informed consumer!. This is a business!!! $$$$$. Critical Thinking. Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions examines assumptions discerns hidden values

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Chapter 2

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  1. Chapter 2 The Research Enterprise in Psychology

  2. Critical Thinking Be an informed consumer! Be an informed consumer! This is a business!!! $$$$$

  3. Critical Thinking Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions • examines assumptions • discerns hidden values • evaluates evidence

  4. Common pitfalls • Misconceptions • Anecdotal evidence • Hindsight bias “I knew it all along” phenomenon • Overconfidence “They couldn’t hit an elephant at this dist---” last words

  5. The Research Enterprise What are the goals of the scientific enterprise?

  6. Goals of the scientific enterprise • Measurement and description • Understanding and prediction • Application and control

  7. Key terms • Hypothesis Tentative statement about two variables • Theory system of ideas

  8. Steps in a scientific investigation • Formulate a testable hypothesis • Select the research method and design the study

  9. Steps in a scientific investigation • Collect the data • Analyze the data and draw conclusions • Report the findings

  10. Research Methods • Operational Definition • a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables • Example- • depression operationally defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)

  11. Replication • Repeating the essence of a research study • One use of operational definitions is for replication

  12. Generalizability • Investigating whether findings extend to other populations

  13. Key terms • Population • all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study (for example, high school students) • Sample • Participants in your study (students in this class)

  14. False consensus effect • Overestimating the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors • Example: If we sit on the Palmetto sidelines we’ll hear “Filet the fish.” Do coral reef fans say that?

  15. Random sample • A representative group • Each member has an equal chance of inclusion • If marbles of two colors are mixed well in the large jar, transfer a few into a smaller one and count them

  16. Research Methods • Experiment • Naturalistic observation • Case studies • Surveys

  17. Case study Psychologists study one or more individuals in great depth in the hope of revealing things true of us all Is language uniquely human?

  18. Survey • technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people • usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people • questionnaire

  19. Naturalistic Observation observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

  20. Experimentation An investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)

  21. Experimentation • Independent Variable • the experimental factor that is manipulated • the variable whose effect is being studied • Dependent Variable • the outcome • “depends on the independent variable”

  22. Experimentation • Extraneous variables • Confound • Influences the dependent variable • To reduce extraneous variables • Control group • Random assignment

  23. Experimentation • Experimental Condition • the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the “treatment” • Control Condition • the baseline or no “treatment”

  24. Experimentation • Random Assignment • assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance • minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups

  25. Experimentation

  26. Identify the

  27. Identify the

  28. Experimentation • Random Assignment • assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance • minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups

  29. DO NOT CONFUSE Random Sampling versus Random Assignment

  30. Experimentation • Placebo group • Receives no active ingredient • Placebo effect • Control group received no active ingredient • Change in this group due to expectations

  31. Experimentation • Double-blind procedure • Both the researchers and the participants are “blind” to the treatment received • Example: glaucoma study

  32. Experimentation • Only method permitting claims of cause and effect • CORRELATION ALONE IS NOT CAUSALITY!

  33. Correlation • Correlation Coefficient • a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Correlation coefficient r = +.37 Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00)

  34. Correlations Positive versus negative correlations • Positive = as one variable increases so does the other • Negative = as one variable increases The other decreases

  35. Strength of correlation • Correlations range from -1 to +1 • A larger number indicates a stronger relationship between the two variables • Zero correlation = no relationship

  36. Perfect positive correlation (+1.00) No relationship (0.00) Perfect negative correlation (-1.00) Correlation Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlations

  37. Correlation Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships could cause (1) Low self-esteem Depression or (2) Depression could cause Low self-esteem or Low self-esteem (3) Distressing events or biological predisposition could cause and Depression

  38. Statistical Reasoning • Mode • the most frequently occurring score in a distribution • Mean • The average • Median • the middle score in a distribution • half the scores are above it and half are below it

  39. Statistical Reasoning • Range • the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution • Variability • how much the scores vary • Standard Deviation • a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean

  40. Statistical Reasoning • Statistical Significance • a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance • “significant” has a very particular meaning to psychologists

  41. Ethics in research • Informed consent • Internal review board (IRB) • Deception and debriefing • Animal research

  42. Study aids • Concept checks • Featured study* • Recap • Practice test • Textbook website

  43. Featured Study Can subliminal audiotapes improve memory or self-esteem?

  44. Featured Study Be able to answer the following questions: • What was the hypothesis? • What did they do? • What did they find? • Why do we care?

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