Rome: Evolution from Republic to Empire

1. Chapter 11 Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase

2. Establishment of Rome • Legend of Romulus and Remus • Rome Founded 753 BCE • Indo-European migrants c. 2000 BCE • Bronze c. 1800 BCE, Iron c. 900 BCE

3. The Etruscans • Originally from Anatolia • Colonized Roman regions • Society declines late 6th c. BCE • Greek maritime attacks • Celtic invasions from north

4. The Kingdom of Rome • Monarchy through 7th-6th c. BCE • Streets, temples, public buildings • Major center of trade routes

5. Establishment of the Republic • 509 BCE Romans overthrow last Etruscan king • Roman forum built • Republican constitution • Executive: 2 consuls • senate

6. Social Conflict • Patricians (aristocrats) • Plebeians (commoners) • Major class conflict 5th c. BCE • Plebeians allowed to elect tribunes for representation • Rights expanded through 3rd c. BCE • Yet 6-month appointments of dictators

7. Expansion of the Republic • Dominated Etruscans • Took over iron industry 5th-4th c. BCE • Expansion via military threat and incentives • Tax exemptions • Trade privileges • Citizenship

8. The Punic Wars • Conflict with Carthage, 264-164 BCE • Three major wars • First over Sicilian grain supply • Later for supremacy in Mediterranean • Later conflict with declining Hellenistic Empires • Rome dominates Mediterranean by middle of 2nd C. BCE

9. Imperial Expansion and Domestic Problems • Land distribution • Perennial problem • Development of large latifundia • Unfair competition for smaller landholders

10. The Roman Empire to 146 BCE

11. The Gracchi Brothers • Tiberius and Gaius • Attempted to limit land holdings of aristocrats • Assassinated • Development of private armies made up of landless peasants • Gaius Marius (with reformers) • Lucius Cornelius Sulla (with aristocrats)

12. Civil War • 87 BCE Gaius Marius takes Rome • Lucius Cornelius Sulla secedes Marius in 83 BCE • Reign of terror follows

13. Julius Caesar • Nephew of Marius • Escapes Sulla’s terror • Relatively young, well-timed trip abroad • Rises to popularity • Public spectacles, victories in Gaul • Attacks Rome 49 BCE • Names self Dictator for life in 46 BCE

14. Caesar’s Policies • Centralized military, governance under personal control • Redistribution of land to war veterans, other allies • Major building projects reduce urban unemployment • Extended citizenship to provinces • Aristocrats threatened, assassinate Caesar in 44 BCE

15. Augustus • Civil conflict follows death of Caesar • Nephew Octavian fights Mark Antony & Cleopatra • Takes title Augustus 27 BCE

16. Augustus’ Administration • Monarchy disguised as a republic • Increasing centralization of political, military power • Stabilized empire • Death in 14 CE

17. Expansion and Integration of Empire • Roman occupation of increasingly remote areas • Gaul, Germany, Britain, Spain • Encouragement of crop production, control of natural resources • Developed infrastructure, cities emerge

18. The Roman Empire, c. 117 CE

19. Pax Romana: “Roman Peace” • 27-250 CE • Facilitated trade, communication • Roadwork • Curbs, drainage, milestones • Postal service

20. Roman Law • Twelve Tables, c. 450 BCE • Adapted to diverse populations under Roman Rule • Innocent until proven guilty • Right to challenge accusers in court • Right of judges to set aside laws that are unfair or inequitable

21. Commercial Agriculture and Trade • Latifundia: production for export • Regional specialization increases • Integration of Empire-wide economy • Mediterranean Sea: Mare Nostrum, “our sea”

22. The City of Rome • Cash flow • Taxes, tribute, spoils, commerce • Massive construction projects • Statuary, monumental architecture, aqueducts • Technology: concrete

23. Roman Attractions • Imported goods • Underground sewage • Circus Maximus • 250,000 spectators • Colosseum • Gladiatorial Games

24. Family and Society • Pater Familias: “father of the family” • Right to arrange marriages, sell children into slavery • Women not allowed to inherit property • Enforcement inconsistent

25. Wealth and Social Change • Newly rich challenge aristocracy • Yet poor class increasing in size • Distraction: “Bread and Circuses”

26. Slavery • 2nd c. CE: estimated at 1/3 of Empire population • Customary manumission at age 30 • Agricultural work, quarries, mines • Chain labor • Revolt under Spartacus, 73 BCE

27. Roman Deities • Polytheistic • Major gods • Tutelary deities • Absorption of gods from other cultures

28. Cicero and Stoicism • Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-46 BCE) • Major orator, writer • Influenced by Greek thought • Proponent of Stoicism

29. Mithraism • Cult dedicated to Mithras • From Zoroastrian myth: god of Sun, light • Roman version emphasizes strength, courage, discipline • Women not admitted into cult • Appealed to military • Cult of Isis also popular

30. Judaism in Early Rome • Jewish monotheism at odds with most ancient cultures • Refusal to recognize emperors as gods • Repeated Jewish rebellions • Romans finally crush Jewish rebellion in Jewish Wars (66-70 CE)

31. Synagogue at Capernaum

32. The Essenes • Messianic Jewish Cult • Baptism • Ascetic lifestyle • Dead Sea Scrolls

33. Jesus of Nazareth • Jewish teacher • Moral code, reputation for miracle-working • Romans fear instigation of rebellion, crucify Jesus

34. Jesus’ Early Followers • Belief in Jesus’ resurrection, divine nature • Title Christ: “Anointed One” • Teachings recorded in New Testament

35. Paul of Tarsus • Extends teachings far beyond Jewish circles • Intensive travel, missionary activity

36. Early Christian Communities • Local leaders: Bishops • Regional variation in doctrine and ritual • Nature of resurrection • Role of women • Gradual acceptance of core texts

37. Growth of Early Christianity • Roman persecution • Yet dramatic expansion of Christianity • Especially with dispossessed, disenfranchised classes • Urban poor • women