Academic Writing

Academic Writing Planning and Structuring

Typical Structure of a Paper

Anatomy of a paper TITLE Use descriptive words that you would associate strongly with the content of your paper. Think about search engines – how will people find thispaper Followed by Author list List of Authors in order of contribution. For each state name, affiliation and email as directed by publication forum

Anatomy of a paper ABSTRACT Short, snappy, synopsis of what you are trying to achieve in the paper and why someone should read it. Use descriptive words that you would associate strongly with the content of your paper. Think about search engines – how will people find this paper

Anatomy of a paper INTRODUCTION Puts your topic in context • Introduce the topic • Provide key concepts • Provide background (briefly) • Introduce your perspective • Structure of your paper Explains what you are trying to do and to what extend

Anatomy of a paper BODY • Background on topic • Your perspective/argument • Key point per paragraph • Logical order – paragraphs, sections • Support points made with references • Findings - Discussion Elaborates on what is stated in the introduction

Shaping the paper CONCLUSION Sums up what has been discussed • General summary of what has been presented • Future implications Extends view presented to readers – opens up work

Anatomy of a paper Reference List List of publications cited in the paper formatted as directed by publication forum

Abstract • Summarizes, in one paragraph (usually), the major aspects of the entire paper in the following prescribed sequence: • the question(s) you investigated (or purpose of paper), with scope and limitations (from Introduction) • Very clearly in the first or second sentence. • how this investigation was completed, (from Main Body - Methodology) • Design or approach. If you employed a specific methodology name it • There is no need to include a lot of detail since that will be covered later • the majorfindings (from Main Body- Results) • What did you actually find out ? Or achieve? • In relation to the body of knowledge ? • a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions. (from Main Body- Discussion and Conclusions) • State the implications of the answers your results gave you.

Introduction • Provide context • Introduce the topic • Why is it important? • What were you aiming to achieve? • What methods were used? • At the end outline what other sections are included

Introduction - How to ? • Start by clearly identifying the area of interest • Use key words from your title • Begin your Introduction by clearly identifying the subject area of interest. • Sketch the background on the topic • A brief view formed from the literature in the area • Explain the purpose of the paper Including: • Scope and limitations • Perspective • The purpose of the project discussed in this paper was to … • This paper presents research into the area of … conducted as part of … • Explain the methods used • Specific methodologies used • Outline the structure of the paper

Background • Provide a short, balanced review of the relevant published literature that is available about the problem area and problem specifically • Summarise for the reader what they need to know about the problem area and the problem before you present your work • General review of the primary research literature • Lead the reader to your statement of purpose/hypothesis by focusing your literature review from the big picture to the more specific topic of interest to you

Methodology • Explain clearly how you conducted your research/study/experiment • Significant features e.g. • Data – preparation etc • Environment – organisation, people etc • Specific methodology • Size of sample • Audience • Survey design • Experiment design • Mechanism for analysis

Results • Objectively present your results without interpretation • in an orderly and logical sequence • using both text and illustrative materials (Tables and Figures). • The results section always begins with text, reporting the key results and referring to your figures and tables as you proceed. • Write concisely and objectively. • Report negative results. • If you didn’t get the results you expected – this can be a good thing ! • Use the past tense. • Avoid repetitive paragraph structures. • Do not interpret the results here.

Results • The body of the Results section is a text-based presentation of the key findings which includes references to each of the Tables and Figures • The text should guide the reader through your results stressing the key results which provide the answers to the question(s) investigated • Key results depend on your questions, they might include obvious trends, important differences, similarities, correlations, maximums, minimums, etc. • Tables and Figures are assigned numbers separately and in the sequence that you will refer to them from the text. • The first Table you refer to is Table 1, the next Table 2 and so forth. • Similarly, the first Figure is Figure 1, the next Figure 2, etc.

Results • Each Table or Figure must include a brief description of the results being presented and other necessary information in a caption • When referring to a table or figure, clearly indicate for the reader the key results that each conveys • Some problems to avoid: • Do not reiterate each value from a Figure or Table - only the key result or trends that each conveys. • Do not present the same data in both a Table and Figure . Decide which format best shows the result and go with it. • Do not report raw data values when they can be summarized as averages, mean values, percents, etc.

Discussion • Interpret your results linking back to what is already known about the area • Connects to the introduction and background • moved us forward from the place you left us at the end of the Introduction. • Do your results provide answers to your hypotheses? • If so, how do you interpret your findings? • Do your findings agree with what others have shown? • If not, do they suggest an alternative explanation or perhaps a unforseen design flaw in your experiment (or theirs?) • What is our new understanding of the problem you investigated and outlined in the Introduction? • What would be the next step in your study, e.g., what experiments would you do next?

Discussion • You must link your work to the literature in the area • Do not introduce new results • You can clarify and introduce new tables and figures to do so • You cannot present results for the first time here

Conclusion (from last lecture) • Include both a summary and • State clearly your conclusions • Remind the reader of what you have put forward • Emphasise what you have found • Suggest how others could extend or apply your work • Similar to the introduction – links to other sections

Expressing your views Don’t use personal pronouns Don’t use abbreviations Don’t use colloquial English Be precise – this is too vague

Expressing your views

Active voice • Prioritises the subjectand the action performed by the subject • Action flows from LEFT to RIGHT • Use it when stating other peoples views and the actor is more important than the object • Many researchers … • Byrne in his 2009 report … ACTIVE = Subject Verb Object “ I reviewed 10 research papers.

Passive voice • Indicates the action performed ON the subject • Action flows from RIGHT to LEFT • Use it when talking about a process or principle • It appears that the predominant definition in use in the discipline is … PASSIVE = Object Verb Subject “10 research papers were reviewed by a single researcher.

Expressing your views

Descriptive Writing v Critical Writing • Download and read the following guides: • Writing Introduction and Conclusions • http://www.qub.ac.uk/directorates/sgc/learning/FileStore/Filetoupload,163268,en.pdf • Descriptive v Critical Writing • http://www.qub.ac.uk/directorates/sgc/learning/FileStore/Filetoupload,163253,en.pdf

Descriptive v Critical Analytical Writing

For Your Paper – what sections? • Introduction • Main Body • Background area • Specific Problem - discussion of area • Research Questions • Conclusions • Reference List

Academic Writing The Mechanics

Sentences • Must have a subject and a verb • and maybe an object • Who, what the subject is doing, to what • Pay attention to the tense • Keep the main subject and verb close together • Create complex compound sentences • Use connecting words • And punctuation • Check for clarity • Do you have a long preamble at the start? • Makes it difficult for the reader to get the point • Are the subject and verb close enough together? • Makes it difficult for the reader to get the point

How to write a sentence • Start with the subject • What the sentence is about • E.g. Software Development Projects • Perhaps add a short introductory phrase • Keep subject and verb close • E.g • Software development projects frequently fail due to a lack of understanding of requirements by the project team. • OR • However, it is widely recognised that software development projects frequently fail due to a lack of understanding of requirements by the project team

Problems • Sentence Fragments • Incomplete, cannot stand alone • E.g. • Emphasising the fact that software development is difficult. • Corrected • The consistent level of software project failure as reported in the Standish Chaos reports emphasises the fact that software development is difficult.

Punctuation - Comma • Separate items in a list • Software development consists of the phases analysis, design, implementation, testing and maintenance. • To mark a phrase at the start or end of a sentence • However, … • To mark a phrase in the middle of sentence • The number of software development projects considered to be failures, as identified in the Standish Chaos reports, has remained largely consistent for the last five years. • First part, non-essential part, second part • To join main clauses • The waterfall model is still widely quoted as a model of software development, but it is recognised as being unrealistic. • To introduce a quote • As Boehm states, “ • Beware of the ‘comma splice’ • Joining two sentences with a comma

Incorrect? • Business analytics has been identified as one of the top ten technologies in the last few years, typically it is in the top five. • This proves that sequential software development processes do not reflect the reality, detailed surveys of project teams will support this.

Punctuation – Colon • Use after a statement to introduce explanation, clarity, illustration or reinforcement of that statement • Initial Statement : Second Statement • Can be used to introduce a quote

Punctuation – Semi-Colon • Join two sentences closely related in meaning • To replace words like ‘and’, ‘so’, ‘but’… • To replace words like ‘however’, ‘moreover’, ‘further’ in the middle of sentences • To separate items in a list if commas are already used • Key researchers in the field of software development are Barry Boehm, creator of the Spiral model; the main developer of the RAD methodology, James Martin; and Kent Beck, creator of the XP methodology.

Punctuation – Apostrophe • Indicate possession • Comes directly after the affected owner • David’s… • The student’s … • The students’… • It’s = ‘it is’ or ‘it has’ • Its – belongs to it • Generally do not use contractions • Can’t, don’t, won’t etc

Paragraph • A collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. • Use to decompose your narrative • Break it into chunks • Present ideas coherently • Each paragraph • Should have a clear central point • Focus on one topic • Contain only relevant information • If you feel your paragraph addresses more than one topic • Introduce another paragraph

Useful Resources • Grammar Basics • http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/1/5/ • Establishing Arguments • http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/01/ • Writing Concisely • http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/572/01/ • Sound Alike Words • http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/660/01/ • Useful Phrases • http://www.englishforresearch.com/phrasebooks/examples.htm

Academic Writing