UNIT 4 VCE INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

1. UNIT 4VCE INTERNATIONAL STUDIES AREA OF STUDY 4: AUSTRALIAN FOREIGN POLICY

2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND • Australian foreign policy has never had a major impact on world events due to inherent difficulties in the amount and type of power required to influence an international system of nearly 200 states struggling to assert their sovereignty and achieve their national interests. • Since WWII Aust. grown from a minor to middle power with still a relatively small population of just over 20 million. • Aust. Is a middle-ranking economy with a modest military capacity. • Aust. fortunes are shaped by the interaction of larger societies.

3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND • Even though Aust. doesn’t have the economic or strategic clout to go on an independent path, it’s complete absence from the international system would make a difference. • Like all middle powers, Aust. has had to work indirectly and co-operatively, using a range of methods to gain its foreign policy national interests.

4. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND • To ensure it’s value is recognised, Australia has traditionally sought to be seen as a useful and constructive “international citizen” by actively participating in international organisations and on issues that affect us all such as arms control and distribution of humanitarian aid.

5. EARLY AUSTRALIAN FOREIGN POLICY • Despite the geographic location and historical pattern of immigration, Australia has traditionally identified itself with the Western world. • This is a result of its settlement as a British colony in the 1700s (18th. Century). • Right up until well into the 20th. Century Australian foreign policy was a matter decided by the national interests of the British Commonwealth.

6. EARLY AUSTRALIAN FOREIGN POLICY • We were: - Wary about our neighbours’ intentions and actions - Excessively fearful of invasion - Fearful of being “overrun” or outnumbered by non -white neighbouring states Due to this, early Australian foreign policy become actively focussed on our role in imperial defence so to remain under the British Empire’s protective umbrella. e.g. Sent forces to aid British fighting in Sudan (1885) Sent forces to aid British in Boer War in South Africa (1899-1901)

7. EXPEDITIONARY FORCE MENTALITY • This policy of securing Australia’s defence is referred to by Grey (1990) as an “expeditionary force mentality”. • World War 1 – another example of ensuring our security by supporting the imperial framework. Aust. didn’t even declare itself at war in 1914 – it was sufficient that British P.M. Herbert Henry Asquith had done so. • Australia following the British lead and didn’t develop its own separate and distinctive foreign policy. • Statue of Westminster passed in London in 1931 allowing for legal independence of Dominions (and therefore control over their own foreign policy) Australia did not ratify the treaty until 1942 (under a Labor government and only after it had become clear that the British would be unable to assist Australia against the threat of a Japanese invasion.

8. BRITISH TIES • From colonisation to the mid-1940s Australia wanted and desired its foreign policy and defence to be shored up by the British. It gave us more military and diplomatic strength than we could get on our own but was also a fairly cheap means of defence. • There were some early attempts at our own foreign policy. e.g. - Australia took control of Papua in 1911 - Royal Australian Nave and the Australian Imperial Forces (AIF) established in 1914 - Increasing constitutional independence from Britain in the 1930s and 1940s saw Australia trying to keep a dual policy of loyalty to Britain and concern for our own interests.

9. WORLD WAR II At the outbreak of WWII Australia again did not issue its own declaration of war, sufficient to rely on British P.M. Chamberlain’s declaration. Our fear of Japanese invasion pushed us to pursue the expeditionary force mentality (McCarthy). BUT As the war progressed it became clear that the British could not defend the Commonwealth in the Asia-Pacific (Hong Kong fell to Japanese in December 1941, Singapore in February 1942). AUSTRALIA COULD NO LONGER RELY ON ITS TIME-HONORED ALLY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

10. NEW DEFENCE LINKS • Australia wanted and had to develop new defence links. • So, Australia withdrew troops from Europe to fight closer to home and in 1941 P.M. Curtin declared: “Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the UK”

11. END OF WORLD WAR II • By the end of WWII, Australia was functioning as an independent state, increasingly concerned to have its viewpoint heard and determine its own foreign policy. • 1944 treaty between Australia and New Zealand signalled this first step into an independent foreign policy. • However, the notion of “collective security” was still central to Australian foreign policy and if Australia wanted support from the collection of states which it identified with, it would have to contribute to the security demands of the collective.

12. AFTER WORLD WAR II • Factors making self defence plans difficult: - Geographic isolation - Limited independence - Large area - Small population - Economic capacity The defence policy adopted was one of “forward defence”.

13. FORWARD DEFENCE • Forward defence is the theory that forces should be deployed away from Australia to prevent a potential enemy from reaching our shores. • The troop deployments would take place within an umbrella of defence with Britain, U.S. and SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation).

14. SEATO • SEATO was established in 1954 in order to oppose further Communist gains in Southeast Asia and combat the spread of communism. • Member states were Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and the U.S. • SEATO was dissolved in June 1977.

15. FORWARD DEFENCE • The principle behind forward defence was that by deploying troops, goodwill would be stored up with allies that might be called upon in our hour of need, as well as directly combating threats to Australian security before they reached our stores. • Forward defence was the guiding strategy from the end of WWII to the 1970s, evolving from a policy of direct threats to one ensuring regional stability through troop deployment in the region and beyond.

16. FORWARD DEFENCE • Forward Defence in action: Vietnam 1962-1972 – 46,000 Aust. Deployed Menzies’ decision to send troops to Vietnam created much internal opposition about Aust. willingness to fight “other people’s wars”, but was also to ensure Washington remained committed to the area and to the defence of Australia. The withdrawal from Vietnam was part of a general ally withdrawal from the region and the election of Whitlam’s Labor government in December, 1972 that allowed Australia to pursue a new defence strategy, bringing an end to the policy of forward defence.

17. EVALUATING FORWARD DEFENCE

18. FEAR OF COMMUNISM • Fear of the “red peril” • Fear of domino theory • Culturally and politically at odds with its Asian neighbours (e.g. Indonesia was “non-aligned” and seemingly supporting the newly established communist states of China and North Korea) • Australian government became locked into a policy of supporting and advancing the American Cold War policy of containment – that communism should not spread beyond the borders established by the WWII treaties.

19. FEAR OF COMMUNISM • 1950s – about strengthening Aust.-U.S. Relationship e.g. Establishment of ANZUS treaty in 1951 (still a cornerstone of Australian defence policy) e.g. Purchase of US ships and planes for our own defence forces e.g. Increasing the intelligence co-operation between Australia, Britain, U.S., New Zealand and Canada, culminating in a naval communication base in W.A. In 1963.

20. FEAR OF COMMUNISM • 1960s – Aust. strives for the development of a stronger individual foreign policy. This was due to external factors beyond Aust. control and not necessarily what it would have liked. e.g. 1966 – British government announced considering withdrawal of “east of Suez” due to economic recovery problems in Britain post WWII and realising she could no longer maintain British interests the world over as it had done previously. e.g. 1961 – Britain’s decision to join the European Economic Community (EEC).

21. THE GUAM STATEMENT • US President Nixon, on his way to China in 1969 announced a new direction to US policy – the Guam statement. This stated that US allies in the Pacific needed to be able to defend themselves against all but a major attack. • The election of Gough Whitlam in 1972 as P.M. saw a shift away for a time from linking Aust. foreign policy actions with US national interests. Whitlam stressed the need to adopt a policy and style more independent of US and Canberra became more critical of Washington’s policies. e.g. Whitlam denounced US bombings in Hanoi e.g. Whitlam attempted to improve relations with other states in the region by abolishing remaining elements of the White Australia Policy (which made Australia seen as racist by its regional neighbours).

22. MID 1970’s to 1986 • From mid 1970s to 1986 Australian foreign policy followed a number of angles: • Still maintained co-operation with US despite the 1984 ANZUS crisis (NZ participation in treaty was suspended) • Aust. made contributions to peacekeeping missions in Middle East and Rhodesia • Continued to support a defence co-operation program in Southeast Asia and Southwest Pacific. • Pursued economic integration with Asia.

23. 1986 • 1986 – Review of Australia’s Defence report by Paul Dibb was published. It was an attempt at a different approach to Australian foreign policy. • The paper called for: • Australia to reach out to its neighbouring area • Not to remain inward-looking • To become more self-reliant in defence

24. 1986 PAPER • The Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade in 1986, Senator Gareth Evans, said: “the capability of Australia’s armed forces [are] ... seen as having relevance not only for the defence of Australia, but the region as a whole” The 1986 paper pointed out 3 main objectives: • Maintain and develop capabilities for the independent defence of Australia • Promote strategic stability in Australia’s region (e.g. Deployment of forces to Fiji) • Assist in alleviating tension between superpowers

25. AUSTRALIA POST 1986 • Australia then attempted to pursue its own national interests outside of Washington by: • Australia’s peace plan for Cambodia • Leading role in establishment of the Cairns Group (1986) of agricultural exporters • Decision to join the APEC initiative without US in 1989 (Cairns group was a coalition of developed and emerging economies outside US and EU that aims to reduce tariffs and subsidies on agriculture) Australia showed it could balance its relationship with US and its other wider national interests.

26. 1990 • Australia began to see itself as part of a wider and looser group of democratic countries operating within “coalitions” of like-minded states. e.g. 1990 – Aust. response to US request for aid in the Desert Shield and Desert Storm operations by sending 3 naval ships to the Persian Gulf to enforce sanctions against Iraq. The ships then formed part of the allied fleet that later supported air and ground attacks against Iraq in the liberation of Kuwait.

27. 1990 • Australia did not consult it’s regional neighbours before sending troops to the Gulf, despite the potential sensitivities there may have been to its Muslim neighbours. It used the justification of “collective security” endorsed by the international community through the U.N. to make the political decision and generate general support for sending troops.

28. HOWARD FOREIGN POLICY • Election of John Howard as P.M. In 1996 saw the pursuit of strong relations with the U.S., believing a close relationship will bring future benefits (e.g. Australia-US Free Trade Agreement (AUSFTA). • Support after 9/11 highlighted the mutual security interests and shared cultural values between Australia and the U.S. • Howard’s foreign policy emphasis on the US alliance led to criticisms that our national interests in Asia-Pacific have suffered as a result • E.g. “Gang of 43” (43 retired defence chiefs and diplomats) in 2004 issued a public denunciation of the Howard government’s foreign policy. • Trade agreements forged under Howard with China, Japan, Singapore and Thailand indicate that Asia-Pacific has not been ignored.

29. RUDD FOREIGN POLICY • Rudd’s election in 2007 implied changes in orientation of foreign policy. • Three pillars of Rudd’s foreign policy: • US alliance • A more active UN membership • Comprehensive engagement with Asia and the Pacific

30. RUDD’S FOREIGN POLICY • Rudd’s first foreign policy actions were to: - Ratify the Kyoto Protocol - Vetoing the sale of uranium to India - Gradual and phased withdrawal of Australian combat troops from Iraq

31. OVERALL • Economically Australia has tried to define itself as part of Asia, but culturally as part of the West. • This creates underlying tensions in the priority of our national interests. • History suggests ties with traditional Western allies are important to our sovereignty and security, but our economic needs propose further integration with Asia is required.