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Introduction to Logos

Introduction to Logos. Logos as Reasoning. Fact and Opinion. What is a “fact” and how can you tell? What are some “facts” you know? Where do you find them? What is an opinion? How can you tell that from a fact? Is it possible to have contradictory facts?

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Introduction to Logos

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  1. Introduction to Logos Logos as Reasoning

  2. Fact and Opinion • What is a “fact” and how can you tell? • What are some “facts” you know? Where do you find them? • What is an opinion? How can you tell that from a fact? • Is it possible to have contradictory facts? • How are facts found out/discovered/known? • How do you form an opinion about something?

  3. Logos: Definition • Logos is the art of using facts and reasoning for effective argumentation • Reasoning: Inductive and Deductive • Logical Fallacies / Where reasoning breaks down • Reasoning: Syllogisms

  4. Deduction • Deduction: Process of starting with universals / assumptions and leading to specifics • General -> specific • Example: 1) All people are mortal; 2) Chuck Norris is a person; 3) Therefore Chuck Norris is mortal

  5. Induction • Induction: Process of leading from particulars to universals / general conclusions • Specific examples -> General conclusion • Example: • If Chuck Norris is good at kicking, and Chuck Norris is good at punching, Chuck Norris must be good at all martial arts.

  6. Syllogisms and Enthymemes? • Logos isn’t just about using facts or statistics in argument, but rather its about being able to use those facts through reasoning. • Syllogisms & enthymemes are two ways to reason in an argument.

  7. What is a syllogism? • A type of deductive reasoning (general to specific) • Consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion • Almost any argument can be broken down into a syllogism.

  8. Premises • Major premise: A general statement.
 • Minor premise: A specific statement.
 • Conclusion: based on the two premises.

  9. Example I • Healthcare is too costly in America • Most middle-class families and employers cannot afford heathcare costs. • Therefore, we need healthcare reform in America

  10. Example II • All people regardless of race were created equal and have rights. • Segregation in schools and busses treats people unequally. • Therefore, we need a constitutional amendment to guarantee equality for all.

  11. Example III • "The gloves didn't fit. If it doesn't fit, you must acquit."-- Johnny Cochran, Closing arguments of the O.J. Simpson trial • The glove was used in the murder and therefore owned and worn by the murderer. (major premise) • The gloves didn't fit. (minor premise) • You must acquit. (conclusion)

  12. Examples V • Tomatoes taste salty.Tomatoes are red.All red foods taste salty. • Bobby stole a bicycle.Bobby is poor.All poor people are thieves. • Snails crawl on the ground.I can crawl on the groundTherefore, I’m a snail.

  13. The point? • While they can be a powerful tool, syllogisms can also lead to overgeneralizations and faulty reasoning. • In groups: write two syllogisms based on arguments in current American politics

  14. Enthymemes • Enthymemes are like syllogisms except that they are missing the minor premise. • These are used more frequently than syllogisms in written and spoken arguments.

  15. Examples of Enthymemes • “Women should be allowed to join combat units because the image of women in combat would help eliminate gender stereotypes.” • Claim: Women should be allowed to join combat units. • Stated Reason: Because the image of women in combat would help eliminate gender stereotypes. • Unstated Assumption: Gender stereotypes are harmful and should be eliminated (or girls with guns = cool?)

  16. Examples Buy this car stereo system because it has a 200-watt amplifier. Claim: Buy this car stereo system Reason: Because it has a powerful amplifier Unstated assumption: loud music rocks / loud car stereo systems are cool

  17. Example • The ladies like “Axe” body spray • (“Axe” smells great.) • If you use “Axe”, you’ll attract women

  18. But what about bad reasoning? • Logical or verbal fallacies - incorrect, bad, faulty reasoning • Can lead readers astray • Can be incredibly convincing!

  19. Fallacies Activity - Skits • Using the list of Logical Fallacies, develop a short skit of your assigned fallacy. • Be prepared to present your skit to the class. • Groups who guess correctly can earn up to 5 bonus points.

  20. Arguments in Action • In groups, analyze, “Third Party Rising” in the New York Times (Op Ed): http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/03/opinion/03friedman.html?_r=1&src=me&ref=general • Answer the following questions (in groups) • What is the overall argument? • What is the supporting evidence? • What appeals are being made from ethos? • What reasoning is being used? Inductive or Deductive? • Identify at least two syllogisms or enthymemes • Are there any fallacies? If so, what are they?

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