Making Sense of Participant Reference

1. Making Sense of Participant Reference How the Same Person can be ὁ ἄνθρωπος & ἐκεῖνος & οὗτος & ὁ (John 9)

2. Ways of referring to the man blind from birth (Jn 9)—subjects only 7:zero (Ø): Øἀπῆλθενοὖνκαὶ Øἐνίψατο… (‘he’—NRSV; ‘the man’—NIV) 9: ἐκεῖνος (distal demonstrative): ἐκεῖνοςἔλεγεν (‘he’—NRSV; ‘he himself’—NIV) 15:ὁ (articular pronoun): ὁδὲεἶπεν αὐτοῖς (‘he’—NRSV; ‘the man’—NIV) 30: articular NP: ἀπεκρίθηὁ ἄνθρωπος (‘the man’—NRSV, NIV)

3. Other ways of referring to activated participants—subjects only 8 (reported speech): οὗτος (proximal demonstrative) Jn 1:41:εὑρίσκειοὗτος πρῶτοντὸνἀδελφὸντὸνἴδιονΣίμωνα (‘he’—NRSV; ‘Andrew’—NIV) Lk 22:41: αὐτὸς (intensive pronoun):καὶ αὐτὸς ἀπεσπάσθη ἀπ’ αὐτῶν ὡσεὶ λίθου βολὴν (‘he’—NRSV, NIV)

4. ‘Encodings’ as subject • zero (complete ellipsis) • articular pronoun • independent pronoun • proximal demonstrative • distal demonstrative • articular NP • combinations

5. Renderings in Englishof Greek subject encodings • NRSV: ‘he’ for ellipsis& articular pronoun& intensive pronoun& proximal demonstrative& distal demonstrative! • Either it is not important for exegetes to know how the Greek referred to a participant • or we miss part of the author’s message when we rely on renderings in English.

6. Three tasks for a scheme of reference • Semantic: identify the referents unambiguously, distinguishing them from other possible ones. • Pragmatic: signal the activation status and prominence of the referents or of the actions they perform. • Processing: overcome disruptions in the flow of information.

7. Scheme of reference: Semantic task • ‘identify the referents unambiguously, distinguishing them from other possible ones’. • Greek authors only use ellipsis or a pronominal form if they believe that their readers will be able to work out who the intended referent is.

8. Scheme of reference: Pragmatic task • ‘signal the activation status& prominence of the referents or of the actions they perform’. Activation status: the referent may be: • being introduced (activated) • being reintroduced (reactivated) • currently on stage (active) • accessible

9. Scheme of reference: Pragmatic task • ‘signal the activation status& prominenceof the referents or of the actions they perform’. Prominence: indicating • who is thematic (current centre of attention), • who is athematic(other than current centre of attention), • which actions or speeches performed by the participants are particularly noteworthy.

10. Scheme of reference: Processing task • ‘overcome disruptionsin the flow of information’. • ‘Don’t begin a new paragraph with a pronoun!’ ‘Discontinuities’ (Givón): • changes of time, place, theme, etc. • flow interrupted by background information. Discontinuities are often accompanied/marked by explicit reference to the participants, even if there has been no change in their roles.

11. Scheme of reference: Processing task Discontinuities are often accompanied/marked by explicit reference to the participants, even if there has been no change in their roles. Jn6:1: Μετὰταῦτα ἀπῆλθεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς πέραν τῆς θαλάσσης τῆς Γαλιλαίας τῆς Τιβεριάδος). • Sentence initial μετὰ ταῦταsignals a change (discontinuity) of time. Jesus is named, even though he was the reported speaker at the end of the previous chapter.

12. 3 tasks for a scheme of reference: Review • Semantic: identify the referents unambiguously, distinguishing them from other possible ones. • Pragmatic: signal the activation status and prominence of the referents or of the actions they perform. • Processing: overcome disruptions in the flow of information.

13. Defaultand MarkedEncodingsfor Subjects • how to analyse the system of reference to activated participants that languages employ. • Initial efforts (e.g. by Givón) involvedstatistical studies.Problem: only reveal tendencies. • Defaultand markedencoding: more insightful.

14. Default and Marked Encodings for Subjects • Default encoding values are identified for (three) specific situations. • Marked encoding values are those that are other than the default encoding for each situation. --Over-encoding --Under-encoding

15. Default Encoding Values for Subjects Three specific situations for which it is useful to identify default encoding values: • when the subject is the same as before; • when the new subject was the addressee of the last reported speech; • other changes of subject.

16. Default Encoding Values for Subjects 1. When the subject is the same as before, then the default encoding value in all languages is the minimum that the syntax will allow. • In most contexts in Greek, the default is ellipsis. Jn 9:7: ἀπῆλθενοὖν καὶ Øἐνίψατο καὶ Øἦλθεν βλέπων. • Syntactic exceptions (e.g. genitives absolute): independent pronoun.

17. Default Encoding Values for Subjects 2. When the subject was the addressee of the last speech, then the default value in Greek is either zeroor an articular pronoun, depending on the author and other factors. καὶ ὡμολόγησενὅτιἘγὼοὐκεἰμὶ ὁ Χριστός. καὶ Øἠρώτησαν αὐτόν, Τί οὖν; Σὺ Ἠλίας εἶ; καὶ Øλέγει, Οὐκεἰμί. … (Jn 1:20b-23; singular versus plural distinguishes speakers)

18. Default Encoding Values for Subjects 3. For most other changes of subject, the default encoding value is an articular NP. • In Jn9:1, no reference is made to Jesus’ disciples, so they are reactivated in v 2 with οἱμαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ. 1Καὶ παράγωνεἶδενἄνθρωπον τυφλὸν ἐκ γενετῆς. 2 καὶ ἠρώτησαν αὐτὸν οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ λέγοντες,

19. Default Encoding Values for Subjects: Summary • Same subject as before: minimum that syntax will allow:zero (GAs: independent pronoun). • Addressee of last speech:zero or an articular pronoun • Most other changes of subject:articular NP

20. Marked encodings for subjects Of two types: • over-encoding (using more encoding material than the default value); • under-encoding (using less encoding material than the default value).

21. Marked encodings for subjects:Over-encoding • Most common when the default encoding value is zero (same subject or addressee of last speech). Typically, any overt reference to the subject then constitutes over-encoding. E.g. Jn 9:30: ἀπεκρίθηὁ ἄνθρωπος (The man was replying to something thatthe religious authorities had said to him)

22. Marked encodings for subjects:Under-encoding • Can be discerned when the default encoding value is an articular NP (for ‘other’ changes of subject). Anything less than an articular NPthen constitutes under-encoding. E.g. Mt 4:12: ØἈκούσας δὲ ὅτι Ἰωάννης παρεδόθη ἀνεχώρησεν εἰς τὴν Γαλιλαίαν) (The subject of the previous verse was the angels [καὶ ἰδοὺἄγγελοι προσῆλθον καὶ διηκόνουναὐτῷ].)

23. Marked encodings for subjects:Under-encoding • typically occurs when the referent is the centre of attention for part or all of the narrative. • The referent is the VIP/central character. • Typically, less coding material is used to refer to the VIP than to other participants (Marchesse, Bible Translator35 [1984], part 2).

24. Marked encodings for subjects:Under-encoding for VIP • In the Gospels, the VIP is usually Jesus. At the beginning of narrative units, the norm is not to name him (except in GAs), even when he was not the subject of the previous clause. • Examples: Mt 4:12 and, with various degrees of MS support, 4:18, 4:23 & 5:1; Mk 1:13, 19, 20, 21, 22b, 29, 34; etc.

25. Marked encodings for subjects:Under-encoding for VIP Naming Jesus in the Synoptics,* once established as the VIP, is indicative of: • a major break in the story (e.g., because of a significant change of theme or situation) • a key speech or action. (*Naming Jesus at the beginning of pericopes are much more frequent in John.)

26. Marked encodings for subjects:Under-encoding for VIPin Mk 1-3:6 Jesus is named in 1:14 (Μετὰδὲτὸ παραδοθῆναι τὸν Ἰωάννην ἦλθεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἰς τὴν Γαλιλαίαν κηρύσσων τὸ εὐαγγέλιον τοῦ θεοῦ) and 3:7 (Καὶ ὁ Ἰησοῦςμετὰτῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦἀνεχώρησεν πρὸςτὴνθάλασσαν), but not at the beginning of any other generally recognised pericope up to 3:6. • ‘The first major section of Mark’s Gospel extends from Ch. 1:14 to Ch. 3:6’ (Lane).

27. Marked encodings for subjects:Under-encoding for VIPin Mk 1-3:6 • Jesus is also named at 1:17, 1:25, 2:5, 2:8, 2:17 and 2:19, when introducing key speeches. E.g. 1:17: καὶ εἶπεν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Δεῦτε ὀπίσω μου, καὶ ποιήσω ὑμᾶς γενέσθαι ἁλιεῖς ἀνθρώπων. • Rhetorical effect: to highlightthe content of these speeches.

28. Specific types of over-encoding involving: • articular nouns/noun phrases • intensive pronouns, • proximal demonstratives • distal demonstratives • articular pronouns.

29. Over-encoding involving articular NPs • Writers tend to make explicit reference to the participants in a narrative when there is a discontinuity, as in Jn 6:1 (Μετὰ ταῦτα ἀπῆλθεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς πέραν τῆς θαλάσσης τῆς Γαλιλαίας τῆς Τιβεριάδος). • Contrast Jn 9:1 (Καὶ Øπαράγωνεἶδενἄνθρωπον τυφλὸν ἐκ γενετῆς): continuity with 8:59 (Ἰησοῦςδὲἐκρύβη καὶ ἐξῆλθεν ἐκ τοῦ ἱεροῦ).

30. Over-encoding involving articular NPs • May also markthe beginning of a new narra-tiveunit when no discontinuity is indicated. • In Mt 4 (but not Lk 4), the beginning of each round is marked by an explicit reference to the devil, even though he was the addressee of Jesus’ previous speech (Τότε παραλαμβάνει αὐτὸνὁ διάβολος εἰς τὴν ἁγίαν πόλιν—5;Πάλινπαραλαμβάνει αὐτὸνὁ διάβολος εἰς ὄρος ὑψηλὸν λίαν—8).

31. Over-encoding involving articular NPs • Can function as a slowing down device that creates the expectation that something important is about to be described. • Jn 9:30: ἀπεκρίθηὁ ἄνθρωποςκαὶ εἶπεναὐτοῖς. Both the apparently redundant speech orienter (ἀπεκρίθη… καὶ εἶπεν) and the overt reference to the speaker (ὁ ἄνθρωπος) create the expectation that what the man has to say (vv 30-33) will be important.

32. Over-encoding involving αὐτός • Used ‘to empha­size identity” (Dana & Mantey). Typically, when the subject of a narrative sentence, its referent is thematic. • Lk 22:41: 40γενόμενοςδὲ ἐπὶ τοῦτόπουεἶπεν αὐτοῖς, Προσεύχεσθε μὴ εἰσελθεῖν εἰς πειρασμόν. 41 καὶ αὐτὸς ἀπεσπάσθη ἀπ’ αὐτῶν ὡσεὶ λίθου βολὴν • αὐτόςensures that attention remains on Jesus, rather than switching to the addressees.

33. Over-encoding involving αὐτός Jn 2:24: αὐτὸςδὲἸησοῦςοὐκ ἐπίστευεν αὐτὸναὐτοῖς • The subject is different from that of the previous sentence, so default encoding would have been an articular noun. Adding αὐτός‘intensifies the subject’ (Lenski)—’Jesus on his part’ (NRSV).

34. Over-encoding involving αὐτός: Lk 3:23 Καὶ αὐτὸςἦνἸησοῦςἀρχόμενοςὡσεὶἐτῶντριάκοντα • Jesus was the addressee of the previous speech (Σὺεἶ ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός, ἐν σοὶ εὐδόκησα). • Naming him (over-encoding) reflects the discontinuity (shift from events to genealogy). • John the Baptist was thematic in the previous pericope, so αὐτός ensures that Jesus is now the centre of attention.

35. Over-encoding involving Proximal οὗτος • One function: ‘to switch attention from the thematic participant of the passage as a whole to another participant who temporarily becomes the centre of attention’. 40ἮνἈνδρέας ὁ ἀδελφὸς Σίμωνος Πέτρου εἷς ἐκ τῶν δύο τῶν ἀκουσάντων παρὰ Ἰωάννου καὶ ἀκολουθησάντων αὐτῷ 41εὑρίσκει οὗτος πρῶτοντὸνἀδελφὸντὸνἴδιονΣίμωνα(John 1:40-41)

36. Over-encoding involving Proximal οὗτος Lk2:25: καὶ ὁ ἄνθρωποςοὗτος δίκαιος καὶ εὐλαβὴς προσδεχόμενος παράκλησιν τοῦ Ἰσραήλ • οὗτοςmarks Simeon as the temporary centre of attention, rather than Joseph and Mary. • The effect of the additional encoding (ὁ ἄνθρωπος) must be to highlightwhat is said about him.

37. Distal ἐκεῖνος • Indicates remoteness from some reference point (Porter). • When the behaviour of two participants or groups is contrasted, ἐκεῖνοςrefers ‘to a more distant noun’ (Schnackenburg). • Lk 18:14: λέγωὑμῖν, κατέβη οὗτος δεδικαιωμένος εἰς τὸν οἶκον αὐτοῦ παρ’ ἐκεῖνον. ἐκεῖνονrefers to the Pharisee (the more distant referent).

38. Distal ἐκεῖνος: Jn 2:21 • When the behaviour of two participants or groups is contrasted, ἐκεῖνοςrefers to a more distantnoun. 19ἀπεκρίθηἸησοῦς καὶ εἶπεν αὐτοῖς, Λύσατε τὸν ναὸν τοῦτονκαὶ ἐν τρισὶν ἡμέραις ἐγερῶ αὐτόν. 20εἶπαν οὖν οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι, Τεσσεράκοντα καὶ ἓξ ἔτεσιν οἰκοδο-μήθη ὁ ναὸς οὗτος, καὶ σὺ ἐν τρισὶν ἡμέραις ἐγερεῖς αὐτόν; 21ἐκεῖνοςδὲἔλεγεν περὶτοῦ ναοῦτοῦσώματος αὐτοῦ Relates back to what Jesus said in 19, rather than to the reaction of the Jews (20).

39. Over-encoding involving Distal ἐκεῖνος • Often refers to a participant who has only just been mentioned. • ‘remote from some reference point’ means thatanimate participants in a narrative text who are designated with ἐκεῖνος are typically athematic. • The current centre of attention is anotherparticipant.

40. Ἐκεῖνος: Mk 16:9-13,20: refers to participants other than Jesus 9[[Ἀναστὰς δὲ πρωῒ πρώτῃ σαββάτου ἐφάνη πρῶτον Μα-ρίᾳ τῇ Μαγδαληνῇ, παρ’ ἧς ἐκβεβλήκει ἑπτὰ δαιμόνια. 10ἐκείνηπορευθεῖσα ἀπήγγειλεν τοῖς μετ’ αὐτοῦ γενομένοις πενθοῦσι καὶ κλαίουσιν· 11κἀκεῖνοιἀκούσαντες ὅτι ζῇ καὶ ἐθεάθη ὑπ’ αὐτῆς ἠπίστησαν. 12Μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα δυσὶν ἐξ αὐτῶν περιπατοῦσιν ἐφανερώθη ἐν ἑτέρᾳ μορφῇ πορευομένοις εἰς ἀγρόν· 13κἀκεῖνοιἀπελθόντες ἀπήγγειλαν τοῖς λοιποῖς·οὐδὲ ἐκείνοις ἐπίστευσαν.

41. Ἐκεῖνος: Mk 16:9-13,20: refers to participants other than Jesus 10ἐκείνη πορευθεῖσα ἀπήγγειλεν τοῖς μετ’ αὐτοῦ γενομένοις πενθοῦσι καὶ κλαίουσιν· 11κἀκεῖνοιἀκούσαντες ὅτι ζῇ καὶ ἐθεάθη ὑπ’ αὐτῆς ἠπίστησαν. … 13κἀκεῖνοι ἀπελθόντες ἀπήγγειλαν τοῖς λοιποῖς·οὐδὲ ἐκείνοις ἐπίστευσαν. • Ensures that Jesus(not named in 9-14) remains thematic [the centre of attention] throughout the passage.

42. Ἐκεῖνος in John • Often indicates that someone other than the referent is or is about to be thematic: 1:6-9 6Ἐγένετο ἄνθρωπος, ἀπεσταλμένος παρὰ θεοῦ, ὄνομα αὐτῷ Ἰωάννης 7οὗτοςἦλθενεἰς μαρτυρίανἵνα μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός, ἵνα πάντες πιστεύσωσιν δι’ αὐτοῦ. 8οὐκ ἦνἐκεῖνοςτὸφῶς, ἀλλ’ ἵνα μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός. 9Ø Ἦντὸφῶςτὸἀληθινόν…

43. Ἐκεῖνος: Jn 1:6-9 6Ἐγένετο ἄνθρωπος, ἀπεσταλμένος παρὰ θεοῦ, ὄνομα αὐτῷ Ἰωάννης 7οὗτοςἦλθενεἰς μαρτυρίανἵνα μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός, ἵνα πάντες πιστεύσωσιν δι’ αὐτοῦ. • John the Baptist is introduced in v 6, then referred to again with οὗτος, introducing a comment about him (the temporary centre of attention).

44. Ἐκεῖνος: Jn 1:6-9 8οὐκ ἦνἐκεῖνοςτὸφῶς, ἀλλ’ ἵνα μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός. 9ØἮντὸφῶςτὸἀληθινόν… • In v 8, ἐκεῖνοςindicates that John ceases to be thematic, as attention switches back to ‘the light’ (vv5, 8). • This allows the subject of v 9 to be left implicit (an instance of under-encoding).

45. Ἐκεῖνος: Jn 9 • Used four times in the narrative to refer to the man who was born blind. 9ἄλλοιἔλεγονὅτιΟὗτόςἐστιν, ἄλλοιἔλεγον, Οὐχί, ἀλλὰὅμοιος αὐτῷἐστιν. ἐκεῖνοςἔλεγενὅτιἘγώεἰμι • His speech (9c) contrasts with those of the previous speakers (9a-b), so ἐκεῖνοςmay have been used because the referent is the more distant noun.

46. Over-encoding involving Ἐκεῖνος: Jn9:11 ἀπεκρίθηἐκεῖνος, Ὁ ἄνθρωπος ὁ λεγόμενος Ἰησοῦς πηλὸν ἐποίησεν… • The man is the addressee of the question of 10. • Over-encoding highlightswhat he says. • The use of ἐκεῖνοςimplies that he is athematic (someone else is the centre of attention). Who? --The neighbours? (They take him to the Pharisees.) --Jesus? (the story’s real centre of attention)

47. Over-encoding involving Ἐκεῖνος: Jn9:25 ἀπεκρίθηοὖνἐκεῖνος, Εἰἁμαρτωλός ἐστιν οὐκ οἶδα • Over-encoding highlights what he says. • Ἐκεῖνοςimplies that someone else is the centre of attention. Who? --The religious leaders? (They put him under oath and excommunicate him.) --Jesus?

48. Over-encoding involving Ἐκεῖνος: Jn9:36 ἀπεκρίθηἐκεῖνος[καὶ εἶπεν], Καὶ τίς ἐστιν, κύριε, ἵνα πιστεύσω εἰς αὐτόν; • The over-encoding and long speech orienterἀπεκρίθη… καὶ εἶπενhighlight the question. • Ἐκεῖνοςindicates that he is athematic.Jesus remains the centre of attention;he both answers the question and, in 39, provides ‘the interpretation of the story,for this miracle was a σημεῖον’ (Bernard).

49. Ἐκεῖνος: Jn9:37 (reported conversation) Καὶ ἑώρακας αὐτὸν καὶ ὁ λαλῶν μετὰ σοῦ ἐκεῖνός ἐστιν. • Topic of ‘Do you believe in the Son of Man?’ (35): ‘you’. • Topic of ‘And who is he, sir, so that I may believe in him?’ (36): ‘he’ (‘the Son of Man’). • Topic of reply is still ‘the Son of Man’. • Ἐκεῖνος (athematic) directs attention back to the original topic (‘you’) and question. Reply: Πιστεύω, κύριε (38).

50. Over-encoding involving Distal ἐκεῖνος: Summary • When the behaviour of two participants or groups is contrasted, ἐκεῖνοςrefers ‘to a more distant noun’. • When ἐκεῖνοςrefers to someone who has only just been mentioned (over-encoding), the referent is typically athematic (some other participant is the current centre of attention).