RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3. RESEARCH • Research is a quest for knowledge through diligent search or investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of new knowledge.

4. CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH

5. STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS

6. 1. Research problem • Decide what you want to find out about. • Research in social sciences revolves around four Ps • People Study population • Problem • Programs subject area • phenomenon Sources of Research question

7. 2. Reviewing literature • To get acquainted with available body of knowledge. • Brings clarity and focus to research problem. • Improves methodology. • Broadens knowledge in the area. • Contextualizes findings.

8. HYPOTHESIS A hypotheses is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which we do not know.

9. Types of hypothesis • Research hypothesis or alternate hypothesis • Null hypothesis Simple Complex Directional Non directional

10. Null hypothesis denoted by H0 Examples • Treatment with beta-interferon has no effect on mean quality of life in patients with multiple sclerosis. • Performing radical surgery on men aged 55 to 75 diagnosed with prostate cancer does not improve their subsequent mortality.

11. Alternate hypothesis (research hypothesis) denoted by H1 or Ha Example- • Treatment with beta-interferon improves quality of life in patients with multiple sclerosis. • Performing radical surgery on men aged 55 to 75 diagnosed with prostate cancer improves their subsequent mortality.

12. Simple hypothesis Example- Smoking causes to lung cancer • Complex hypothesis Example- smoking, obesity and high cholesterol level increases the risk of Myocardial Infarction

13. Directional Example- Use of gutka increases the risk of oral cancer • Non directional Example- excessive fluoride concentration of drinking water is associated with dental caries

15. 4. Developing objective • Objectives are the goals set out to attain in study. • Objectives listed under 2 headings • Main objectives ( aims) • Sub-objectives

16. The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of study. • The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within the main framework of your study.

17. Objectives • Numbered • Statement begins with an action verb.

18. 5. Research design • Research design is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. • Involves the consideration of the following : 1. Objectives of the research study. 2. Method of Data Collection to be adopted 3. Source of information—Sample Design 4. Tool for Data collection 5. Data Analysis- qualitative and quantitative

19. Method of data collection • Experimental method • Randomized controlled trials • Non Randomized trials • Quasi experimental designs Observational method • Descriptive studies • Analytical studies • Ecological • Cross sectional • Case control • Cohort

20. Hierarchy of evidence

21. Sampling Sample Population

23. Simple Random Sampling 2, 6, 7, 12, 18 Each member of the population is listed in fashion (e.g., numerically) and then a sample is drawn by randomly selecting members of the population

24. Systematic/Sequential Random Sampling Desired Sample Size: 5 Population Size: 20 Increment: 20/5 = 4 A random start in the sequence is selected, and sample is selected by selecting cases sequentially in the list to produce the desired sample size Random Start: 2

25. Stratified Random Sampling Subgroups (“strata) created that separate members of the population on some important attribute (e.g., sex, race). A random sample from each stratum is then drawn.

26. Cluster Sampling

27. Convenience Sampling Researcher Researcher selects “units” to be included based on ease of obtaining them or simple availability

28. Volunteer Sampling I’ll do it! I’ll do it! Researcher I’ll do it! Researcher uses only people who volunteer to participate in the research

29. Quota sampling

30. Network/Snowball Sampling Researcher Researcher selects a few participants, who then suggests others who may be willing to participate

31. 6. Collecting data Broadly classified as • Observation • Interviews and self administered questionnaires • The use of documentary sources- Clinical records, death certificates, published mortality statistics, census publications etc.

32. Choice of methods of data collection is largely based on • The accuracy of the information they will yield. • Extent to which the method will provide a precise measure of the variable the investigator wishes to study. • Reliability and validity

33. Based on practical considerations • The need for personnel, skills, time, equipment, and other facilities. • Acceptability of the procedures to the subjects. • The probability that the method will provide a good coverage.

34. DATA • Datum means a measured or counted fact or piece of information stated as a figure • Data is a set of values recorded on one or more observational units

35. Variable • Any attribute, phenomenon, or event that can have different values. • A characteristic that varies from person to person

36. Quantitative variable Qualitative variable Types of variables A. Continuous variable B. Discrete variable A. Independent variable B. Dependent variable

38. Quantitative Data • Quantitative data have a magnitude and also the frequency

42. Qualitative Data • There is no notion of magnitude or size of the characteristicor attribute • They are classified by counting the individuals having the same characteristic of attributeand not by measurement.

48. Why so much importance? • They behave differently • The level of measurement determine the type of statistics that is appropriate for its analysis • Statistic analysis should be planned along with the data collection procedures so that they match

49. Independent variable • Dependent variable Eg- Increase in sweet consumption is associated with increased frequency of dental caries