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Louisiana State University Radiation Safety Office

Louisiana State University Radiation Safety Office. Module 5 Regulations and Standards. In The Beginning. On 8 November 1895, William Conrad Roentgen discovered the x-ray. The First X-Ray. On 22 December 1895, Mr. Roentgen made the first x-ray photograph (Mrs. Roentgen ’ s hand).

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Louisiana State University Radiation Safety Office

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  1. Louisiana State UniversityRadiation Safety Office Module 5 Regulations and Standards

  2. In The Beginning ... • On 8 November 1895, William Conrad Roentgen discovered the x-ray.

  3. The First X-Ray On 22 December 1895, Mr. Roentgen made the first x-ray photograph (Mrs. Roentgen’s hand).

  4. On 1 January 1896, Roentgen announced his discovery to the world. 14 February 1896, four days after news of the discovery reached the U.S, x-rays were used to guide surgery in New York. In early 1896, the Italian military began using x-rays to diagnose and treat wounded soldiers The Aftermath

  5. At the same time ... • In February 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity.

  6. Recognizing the Hazards • Jan 1896: The first radiation burns were reported • Nov 1896: Elihu Thompson intentionally exposed his little finger to radiation over a period of a few days and then cautioned against over exposure “… or there may be cause for regret when too late.” • Becquerel and Pierre Curie both suffered abdominal burns from carrying vials of radium in their vest pockets.

  7. Early Protection Recommendations • Between 1896 and 1899, William Herbert Rollins proposed almost all of the protective measures now employed in x-ray systems. • Shielded tube housings. • Collimators • Pulsed fluoroscopy • Filtration • In 1896, Thomas Edison cautioned against the continued use of x-rays and abandoned his own research in this area.

  8. Standards Organizations • 1925: The First International Congress on Radiology meets in London. • 1928: The Second International Congress on Radiology meets. • 1929: The Advisory Committee on X-ray and Radium Protection is founded (Later becomes the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP) • 1950: The International Congress on Radiology changes its name to the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)

  9. Regulatory Agencies • 1946 & 1954: The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 and the 1954 amendments to the Act establish the Atomic Energy Commission to regulate source, special nuclear, and by-product material. • 1959: The Federal Radiation Council is organized to control non-AEC materials.

  10. Early Exposure Limits • Early 1920s: No more than 7 hours per day, with Sunday and two half-days per week off, performing x-ray procedures. • Mid 1920s: 1/100 of the Erythema dose in any 30 day period (works out to about 72 rads/yr). • Early 1930s: 50 R/yr • Late 1930s: 25 R/yr • 1950: 300 mrem/week (15 rem/yr) deep dose and 600 mrem/week (30 rem/yr) shallow dose • 1959: 5 rem/yr (ICRP)

  11. Radiation Measurements • Early 1900s: The ionization chamber is developed. • 1920s: Photographic film begins to be used as a dosimeter. • 1928: a Roentgen defined as 1 esu/cm3 of air (essentially 2.58 x 10-4 C/kg of air) • Later: the rad and rem were defined.

  12. Regulatory Agencies • 1970: The EPA is established and the FRC becomes part of EPA. • 1974: AEC is replaced by the DOE and NRC. • UNK: DOT begins regulating the transport of radioactive materials. • UNK: FDA regulates the performance of x-ray systems. • UNK: OSHA regulates occupational exposures at non-NRC licensed facilities

  13. Dose Limits • 1977: ICRP recommends 5 rem/yr including internal exposures • 1990: ICRP recommends 2 rem/yr averaged over 5 years with no single year exceeding 5 rem. • 1994: NRC adopt 1977 recommendations.

  14. What Needs to be Regulated ? • Byproduct Material • Source Material • Special Nuclear Material • Naturally occurring and Accelerator produced Radioactive Material (NARM) • Ionizing Radiation Producing Devices

  15. Byproduct Material • Any radioactive material (except special nuclear material) yielded in, or made radioactive by, exposure to the radiation incident of the process of producing or utilizing special nuclear material.

  16. Source Material • Uranium or thorium or any combination of uranium and thorium in any physical or chemical form

  17. Special Nuclear Material • Plutonium, uranium-233, uranium enriched in the isotope 233 or in the isotope 235.

  18. NARM • Naturally occurring or accelerator- produced radioactive material, such as radium, and not classified as source material.

  19. Ionizing Producing Devices • Electronic devices that are capable of emitting ionizing radiation. Examples are linear accelerators, cyclotrons, radiofrequency generators that use cyclotrons or magnetrons, and other electron tubes that produce x-rays.

  20. Hierarchy of Standards • Federal Laws and Regulations. • State Laws and Regulations • Accreditation Standards. • National and International Consensus Standards and Guidance.

  21. Who Regulates What inLouisiana? • NRC: Special Nuclear (more than 200 grams) • State: Source, Byproduct, Special Nuclear (less than 200 grams) NARM and Radiation Producing Devices • OSHA: Everything (sort of) • EPA: Disposal and Environmental Releases • DOT: Transportation • FDA: Radiation Producing Devices (Performance)

  22. LA Environmental Code PART XV • The state of LA, not the NRC, regulates the use of radiation at LSU. • Louisiana Radiation Protection Division of the Department of Environmental Quality is the proponent. • The LARPD issues specific licenses for the receipt, possession, distribution, use, transportation, transfer, and disposal of radioactive material.

  23. PART XV (CONT.) • Chapter 4 covers: occupational dose limits, radiation dose limits for individual members of the public, surveys and monitoring, control of exposures from external sources in restricted areas, respiratory protection, storage and control, waste disposal, records, reports, and enforcement.

  24. Title 10 CFR(Code of Federal Regulations) • a. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is the proponent. • b. Governs the use of special nuclear material in excess of 200 grams.

  25. Title 21 CFR • a. Public Health Service, Center for Devices and Radiological Health is the proponent. • b. Governs standards and programs for cold cathode discharge tubes, x-ray inspections at airports, industrial x-ray equipment, laser products, ultrasound devices, mercury vapor lamps and sun lamps .

  26. Title 29 CFR • Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is the proponent. • Governs the use of all ionizing radiation to include alpha rays, beta rays, gamma rays, X-rays, neutrons, high-speed electrons, high speed protons, and other atomic particles. • Part 1910.1096, Ionizing Radiation, includes requirements for dose limits, instructions to employees, posting requirements, and reports of over-exposure. • Memorandum of understanding with Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

  27. Title 49 CFR • Transportation of Radioactive Materials.

  28. RADIATION PROTECTION GOALS • LIMIT PROBABILITY OF RADIATION BIOEFFECTS • DEVELOP ACCEPTABLE RISK WITH DERIVED BENEFITS • PROTECT HUMAN KIND AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

  29. RADIATION PROTECTION OBJECTIVES • PREVENTION OF NON-STOCHASTIC DISEASE • SEVERITY VARIES WITH MAGNITUDE OF DOSE • HEALTH EFFECTS HAVE A THRESHOLD DOSE • EXAMPLES: CATARACTS, IMPAIRMENT OF FERTILITY

  30. RADIATION PROTECTION OBJECTIVES • PREVENTION OF NON-STOCHASTIC DISEASE • SEVERITY VARIES WITH MAGNITUDE OF DOSE • HEALTH EFFECTS HAVE A THRESHOLD DOSE (EX: CATARACTS, IMPAIRMENT OF FERTILITY) • LIMIT RISK OF STOCHASTIC HEALTH EFFECTS • SEVERITY INDEPENDENT OF DOSE (BOTH SOMATIC AND GENETIC) (EX: LEUKEMIA, MALIGNANT TUMORS)

  31. RADIATION PROTECTION PHILOSOPHY • BENEFITS MUST OUTWEIGH THE RISKS • KEEP RADIATION DOSES ALARA, AS LOW AS REASONABLY ACHIEVABLE

  32. RADIATION RISK IN PERSPECTIVE • RADIOGENIC HEALTH EFFECTS HAVE NOT BEEN OBSERVED BELOW DOSES OF 10 REM • LIMITATION OF QUANTITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENTS TO DOSES AT OR ABOVE 5 REM PER YEAR OR 10 REM LIFETIME • USE OF QUALITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT BELOW 5 REM PER YEAR - MANAGEMENT OF ALARA IN RADIATION PROTECTION • Source: Health Physics Society Position Statements - 1999

  33. Note : A copy of each workers annual exposure report is available at the Radiation Safety Office.

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